2.1 DNA Replication Transcription hnRNA Splicing Translation Cell nucleus Cell cytoplasm mRNA Protein

2.2 Average Minimal Mutation Distance Candida Saccharomyces Neurospora Moth Screw worm Tuna Snake Turtle Penguin Chicken Duck Pigeon Kangaroo Rabbit Pig Donkey Horse Dog Monkey Man

2.3 I II III Fish SalamanderTortoiseChickHogCalfRabbitHuman

2.4 HumanLizardCatWhaleBatFrogBird Humerus Ulna Radius Carpal

2.5 Glyptodont (fossil) Armadillo (living)

2.6

2.7

2.8 Generation 1, infants Generation 1, reproductive age Generation 2, infants Spread of successful variants through inheritance Differential death before reproduction Variability in developmental programs

2.9 t1t1 t2t2 Biased sample Geographical barrier

2.10 Transcription 3’ 5’ Stop codon Transcription starts here TATA box GC box CAAT box GC box Controls the start point of the transcription Controls the binding of RNA polymerase Promoter region: Controls the timing and tempo of transcription Exon 2 Exon 1 Intron 1

2.11

2.12 Crossing over of homologous chromosomes Paired chromosomes InversionDeletionInsertion

2.13

2.14 (a) Stabilizing (b) Directional(c) Disruptive Frequency of Phenotypes