II. Operant Conditioning

A. Definition Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in correspondence increases or decreases in occurrence 2. Learning from the consequences of behavior 3. The word operant is used because the subject operates on or causes some change in the environment 2

B. E.L. Thorndike & the Law of Effect Edward Thorndike used animals (cats) to test his theories about learning Developed one of the few laws in psychological science. Law of Effect deals with consequences of behavior: Behavior that is reinforced is encouraged. Behavior that is punished is discouraged 2. Cats were to pull a lever to open the box– food was placed on the outside of the box 3

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box 4

C. B.F. Skinner 1. Refined Thorndike’s Law of Effect Worked mainly with pigeons, rats Believed all behavior was governed by consequences. 2. Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning. 3. Devised ways to apply these principles in the real world. 4. Designed the Skinner Box (programmed to deliver rewards based on animal’s behavior) Built & raised his only daughter in a modified “Skinner Box” 5

D. Reinforcement v. Punishment 1. Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior to be repeated. 2. Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior to be repeated.

E. Punishment Most effective if it is delivered immediately after the unwanted behavior and if it is harsh Harsh punishment may also result in unwanted consequences (fear & anger) Two types of learning that have to do with punishment: Escape learning: allows one to terminate an unappealing stimulus (Sammy creates a ruckus in the English class he hates & is asked to leave) Avoidance learning: enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether (Sammy cuts the English class)

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment GOAL: to make/continue behavior GOAL: to STOP behavior Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Positive Punishment Negative Punishment Add (+) something good Take away (-) something bad Add (+) something bad Take away (-) something good EX: Giving candy for good behavior EX: Relieving headaches after taking Tylenol™ EX: Spanking for bad behavior EX: Going to “time-out” for 5 minutes for bad behavior

F. Types of Reinforcers 1. Primary reinforcers Items that are naturally reinforcing. EX: Food, shelter, water 2. Secondary reinforcers Items whose value must be learned. EX: Money, grades 11

G. Schedules of Reinforcement 1. Punishers & reinforcers can be administered by: Continuous schedule (behavior is reinforced every single time) Punishers are most effective when this is used Partial schedule (responses are generally more stable and last longer once they are learned) Reinforcement is more effective when this is implemented

H. Types of Partial Schedules 1. Fixed-Ratio Specified number of correct responses before reinforcement is provided. Being paid for every 10 pizzas made. Being ejected from a basketball game after five fouls. 2. Fixed-Interval Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed. Cramming for an exam. Picking up your check from your part-time job. 3. Variable-Ratio Unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement is provided. Playing a slot machine Sales commissions 4. Variable-Interval Reinforcement of first response after varying amount of time. Pop quizzes in class. Dialing a friend on the phone and getting a busy signal.

I. Applications of Operant Conditioning Shaping: reinforcing for behaviors that are similar or that lead to the desired behavior Helps avoid superstitious behavior Chaining: taught to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward Example: A rat learned to run through a obstacle course in order to obtain a food reward 3. Behavior modification- uses reinforcement & punishment to reduce inappropriate behaviors & to increase engagement in appropriate behaviors Token economies: an individual is given tokens (have no true value) after performing a desired behavior Trade in tokens for any type of reinforcers Often used in prisons, mental institutions, & schools 15