Europe and the World: Decolonization

Introduction Decolonization: the process of becoming free of colonial status and achieving statehood Highlight of empires: WW1 Between WWI and WWII, movements for independence begun in earnest in Africa and Asia Dominance of colonial powers seemed at odds with Allied goals in WWII. Call for national self-determination – fight for independence. Empires reluctant to let colonies go.

Introduction Churchill: “I have not become His Majesty’s Chief Minister to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire” European powers, including the British, were destroyed by WWII. Even Great Britain no longer had energy or wealth to maintain a colonial empire.

Introduction Between 1947 and 1962, virtually every colony achieved independence and statehood. Difficult and bitter process. Created a new world – non-Western states ended era of Western domination.

Decolonization in India Independence movements led by Mohandas Gandhi, leader of the Indian National Congress Nonviolent protests, British post-WW2  independence in 1947 India divided into two countries: India (Hindus) & Pakistan (Muslims) Forced migration to new “homeland” Violence  ~500,000 deaths

Decolonization Breakup of Pakistan & Bangladesh: 1971 Kashmir disputed Divided by geography, language, ethnicity Kashmir disputed Both India & Pakistan claim the area of Kashmir; nuclear weapons in late 20th century complicated this issue (threat of nuclear war, China also involved ) Emigration of Refugees to London Illustrates movement to imperial metropoles (cities in home country) British Parliament passes more restrictive legislation to United Kingdom ~4% population is “British Asian”

Africa: The Struggle for Independence After WWII, independence movements in Africa European powers could no longer afford to keep their colonies Africans wanted to end exploitation of their lands & resources, resented white administration Little had been done to prepare the colonies for self-rule. Political organizations formed pre-war Convention People’s Party: Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Kenya African National Union: Jomo Kenyatta Most political activities were non-violent. Constituents were primarily merchants, urban professionals, and members of labor unions.

Political Activists Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Formed Convention People’s Party in 1949 for independence of Gold Coast from Britain Ghana becomes independent: 1957, becomes president in 1960 Many public works, but also accused of corruption & running Ghana into debt—common pattern in Africa Claimed dictatorial powers in 1964, overthrown in 1966. Supported Pan-Africanism: Former slaves should return to their homes in Africa

Africa: The Struggle for Independence Kenyan Mau Mau movement: Employed terrorism to achieve goal of uhuru (freedom). Gov’t tried to control with British, but civil war broke out Convinced Great Britain to promise eventual independence (1963) Jomo Kenyatta becomes first president of Kenya

Africa: The Struggle for Independence Egypt became an independent republic in 1952, after being quasi-independent monarchy under British control since 1922. British military: protect Suez Canal and influence Egyptian affairs French not strong enough to maintain control over entire empire. France granted full independence to Morocco and Tunisia in 1956. Retained possession of Algeria  multiple civil wars between French nationals (minority) and Algerian nationals

Africa: The Struggle for Independence Algerian nationalist group National Liberation Front initiated guerrilla war in 1954 for independence. Charles de Gaulle granted Algeria independence in 1962.

Africa: The Struggle for Independence South Africa Formation of African National Congress in 1912. Goal of ANC: economic and political reforms, including equality for educated Africans. Whites created system of segregation known as apartheid ANC called for armed resistance after arrest of Nelson Mandela in 1962. Most black African nations achieved independence in the late 1950s and 1960s.

Conflict in the Middle East Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon became independent after WWII. Idea of Arab unity led to formation of Arab League in 1945. Founding member: Egypt Original goal: help M.E. countries achieve independence from Europeans, prevent Jewish community from creating a Jewish state in Palestine Today: aligned with coordinating and protecting interests, strengthen ties, defend vs. ISIS Has 22 member states today

Conflict in the Middle East The Question of Palestine British reduced Jewish immigration in Palestine in 1930s. Zionists (supported separate Jewish state) turned to U.S. for support. Truman administration approved independent Jewish state in Palestine. Changes after Holocaust  death of millions of Jews  sympathy! British turns issue to UN General Assembly May 14, 1948: UN divided Palestine into Jewish & Arab sections (Jewish = Israel) Arab states refused to recognize existence of Israel

Conflict in the Middle East The Arab-Israeli Conflict After paritition of Palestine, periodic war between Israelis & Palestinians (continues today) 1964: Egypt took lead forming Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), believed only Palestinian peoples had right to form a state in Palestine. Al-Fatah, led by Yasser Arafat, began to launch attacks on Israeli territory; this was seen by much of international community as terrorism. June 5, 1967, Israel launched preemptive strikes against Egypt, Jordan & Syria, wiping out most of the Egyptian air force. (*known as Six Day War) Gave Israel Gaza Strip, West Bank, East Jerusalem & Golan Heights

Conflict in the Middle East Nasser and Pan-Arabism Col Gamal Abdel Nasser seized control of Egypt in 1954 Seized Suez Canal (French and British run) in 1956 1968: Nationalized the Suez Canal Company. British and French launched a joint attack on Egypt to protect investment; joined by Israel. U.S. and Soviet Union supported Nasser—didn’t agree with British & French actions U.S. brokers peaceful compromise!  March 1958: Egypt united with Syria in United Arab Republic. Hoped that union would eventually include all Arab states. UAR ended when military leaders seized control of Syria. Egyptians believed the French-and-British-controlled Suez Canal was only one example of colonial exploitation; Nasser won support by pledging to fight them on this issue.

Conflict in the Middle East Arab-Israeli Dispute (cont’d) Six-Day War devastated Nasser’s forces and tripled the size of Israeli territory. Egypt launched air and artillery attack on Israeli positions in the Sinai on Yom Kippur, 1973

Asia: Nationalism and Communism U.S. granted independence to the Philippines in 1946. Great Britain soon did same in India. Ethnic and religious differences made process difficult and violent. British negotiated with both Indian National Congress (Hindu) and the Muslim League. Muslims and Hindus were unwilling to accept a single Indian state. British India divided into two states: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim).

Asia: Nationalism and Communism 1948: Britain granted independence to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar).

Asia: Nationalism and Communism Only Mahatma Gandhi objected to the division of India. India and Pakistan granted independence in Aug 1947; million were killed trying to cross borders. Gandhi assassinated January 30, 1948.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism Indonesia emerged from Dutch East Indies in 1949. French tried to remain in Indochina, causing bloody struggle with Vietnamese (communist) nationalist guerrillas led by Ho Chi Minh. Peace treaty  Division of Vietnam into North & South Supposed to have elections to reunite country in 1956, but that didn’t happen; war broke out between N & S. After defeat in 1954, France granted independence to Laos and Cambodia Communism spreads to Cambodia, Khmer Rouge leads genocide Khmer Rouge vs. Vietnamese Communists  free elections in 1991

Asia: Nationalism and Communism China under Communism 2 governments: Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek in southern and central China (supported by Americans) and Communists led by Mao Zedong in North China.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism China Under Communism (cont’d) Full-scale war broke out in 1946. In 1949, Chiang’s government and 2 million of his followers fled to Taiwan. 1955: Chinese government collectivized all private farmland and nationalized most industry and commerce. Began radical program called Great Leap Forward in 1958 to increase productivity; it was a disaster.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism China Under Communism (cont’d) Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution lasted from 1966 to 1976. Red Guards wanted to eliminate “four olds” – old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism China Under Communism (cont’d) People began to turn against revolution, and reformers seized power when Mao died in September 1976.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries Independent nations found themselves caught in rivalry between US and USSR. Vietnam: northern half Communist-ruled and southern half supported by American financial and military aid.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries Many new nations, like India, attempted to remain neutral in Cold War. Neutral nations were put at odds with the U.S., who tried to mobilize all nations against the communist threat.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries Indonesia President Sukarno allied himself with Communist China and Soviet Union. Relied on domestic support for Indonesian Communist Party. Overthrown by conservative Muslim army in 1965 Military government was established under General Suharto. Suharto re-established good relations with the West and attempted to repair economy.