Module 43 – Social Thinking We influence and are influenced by others through our constant interactions with them. Social psychology studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Attributions We attempt to understand each other’s behaviors by making attributions: Dispositional attributions Situational attributions Culture influences the way we make attributions. Attributions influence the way we relate to each other, our political opinions, and our decisions about each other. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR: We overestimate the influence of personality Attitudes They are feelings (based on our beliefs) that predispose our reactions to our environment (objects, people, and events) Attitudes and environment influence behavior. Behavior influences attitudes. 1

Understanding behavior Why do you think Deniz failed the psyc 100 test? He/she did not study for the exam He/she did not attend the classes Why did you fail the psych 100 test? The test was difficult The teacher was not fair

How do we think about and try to understand one another? Attributions: The process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behavior or events. Heider (1958) : People are “naive scientists”-rationally and logically testing their hypotheses about the behaviors of others. Dispositional attributions: Attributes behavior to internal factors (personality traits, moods, attitudes, beliefs...etc Situational attributions: Attributes behavior to external factors (actions of others, nature of the situation, or luck). Heider (1958) : People are “naive scientists”-rationally and logically testing their hypotheses about the behaviors of others. In forming attributions, people are motivated by The need to form a coherent view of the world Need to gain control of the environment. Attributions - Assigning a cause; atıfta bulunmak 3

The Effects of Attribution Attributions influence the way we relate to each other, our political opinions, and our decisions about each other Implication for interventions: If we attribute the difficulties of unfortunate others to personal deficits rather than circumstances, treatment programs are more likely to focus on changing individuals instead of the circumstances. Low levels of literacy among women in Turkey * Low intelligence? * Lack of access to education?

Errors we make FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR: We overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situations Situations and roles we are playing determine our actions Should observe the same person across many situations to make attributions about that person’s personality characteristics. Self- serving bias – our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably Implication for interventions: If we attribute the difficulties of unfortunate others to personal deficits rather than circumstances, treatment programs are more likely to focus on changing individuals instead of the circumstances. Low levels of literacy among women in Turkey * Low intelligence? * Lack of access to education?

Attitudes* Feelings (based on our beliefs) that predispose our reactions to our environment (objects, people, and events Cigarette smoking does not really kill. “White” lies don’t count as lies Attitudes come from: Properties of an attitude object Direct experience/mere exposure Classical conditioning Mass Media Socialization/ social roles Behaviors * tutum

Attitudes and Actions External Influences Behavior Internal attitudes Behavior Attitudes influence behavior (most of the time) What if there are other influences? Does behavior influence attitudes? Attitudes and environment influence behavior. Behavior influences attitudes.

How does behavior influence attitudes? “Foot-in-the-door” phenomenon Agree to a request for a small action  comply with a larger demand Charitable contributions, blood donations etc. When induces to speak or write against one’s own belief- people begin to believe their own words. Example: A: May I have a few minutes of your time? B: Yes sure… A: Will you please edit my paper? B: Ummm, I guess.. 8

What if behaviors and attitudes don’t coincide Murat and his friends have been at a party. Although Murat agreed to be the designated driver, he has drunk too much, and is drunk. Still, he gets behind the wheel with three other friends along, and starts the car. Murat knows that drunk driving kills, yet he drives off anyway.

What if behaviors and attitudes don’t coincide Murat can change one or the other conceptions “I am a person who does not agree with drunk driving” becomes… “Drunk driving is OK. A lot of drunk drivers arrive at their destinations safely. More drunk drivers make it home than are killed in accidents.” Or... “I am a person who is driving drunk” becomes “I am not driving drunk. Sure, I had a few drinks, but I feel fine. I’m not really drunk.” Murat is motivated to reduce his dissonance induced unpleasant arousal, but how does he achieve this?

What if behaviors and attitudes don’t coincide Cognitive Dissonance:We try to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when we have inconsistent cognitions. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. Provides self-concept maintenance How do we reduce dissonance? change our cognition (or attitude) make one cognition more important or decrease importance of the other add new, consonant cognitions minimize the importance of the conflict change our perception of the behavior change the behavior (behavior modification) reduce the perceived choice