Developmental Psychology *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.

Unit 9:

Developmental psychology Introduction Developmental psychology Often referred to as an applied research topic because findings from other areas can be applied to human development Nature versus nurture Stability and Change Continuity and stages Continuity approach = development is a continuous process as abilities and knowledge are added at a gradual rate Stages approach = development occurs through distinct stages with attention to “critical periods”

Research Methods Longitudinal Method Cross-sectional Method Measures a single individual or group over an extended period of time Provides in-depth information about age changes Cross-sectional Method Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time Measures a large sample of subjects, but results can be influenced by the historical periods in which they live

Prenatal Development - Overview Prenatal period begins with conception and ends nine months later with birth During the first ten days after conception, the fertilized egg or zygote become an embryo During the embryonic stage, cells begin to divide (about 1 week) and differentiate into organ systems. After 8 weeks, the developing embryo becomes a fetus. The fetal stage lasts until birth. During this time, neural cells are produced at the rate of 250,000 per minute.

Conception Conception 200 million sperm race to fertilize the egg Release digestive enzyme to get through egg’s protective coating As soon as one gets through, the egg’s surface blocks out the others

Prenatal Development Zygote Embryo Fetus

Prenatal Development Placenta Teratogens Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Most other prenatal influences are genetic or hormonal in origin Alcohol, drugs Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (animated childbirth video)

The Competent Newborn Senses at birth mostly function normally except for sight which develops quickly Reflexes – No Tabula Rasa Grasping – cling to mom Postural – sit with support Rooting – turn toward source of touch Habituation Novelty-preference procedure – focus on the face first

Infancy & Childhood

Physical Development Brain Development Infancy = rapid growth of brain and nervous system (0-3 month video) By age 2, infant’s brain is about 75% of its full size People typically cannot remember events that occurred before age 3 because brain circuits were not fully connected (Infantile Amnesia) Pruning process Brain growth continues through puberty, then excess connections stop and strengthening of useful connections increases. Maturation

Physical Development Motor Development Motor development – provides good example of Maturation process Area of development least influenced by parental involvement since rate of development is controlled by growth of neurons in the cerebellum Roll over at 3 months Sit alone at 5-6 months Stand alone at 11 months Walk alone at 12 months Walk up steps at 17 months (child motor development video)

Cognitive Development Cognition Conservation Sensorimotor Stage Schema In Piaget's theory, a schema is both the category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that knowledge. Assimilation Accommodation

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Sensorimotor Stage Object permanence “out of sight, out of mind”

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Preoperational Stage Conservation

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Preoperational Stage Conservation

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Preoperational Stage Conservation

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Egocentrism

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Theory of Mind Lev Vygotsky

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Concrete Operational Stage

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking Formal Operational Stage Abstract concepts Ability to generate multiple hypotheses to explain various phenomenon

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Cognitive Development Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory Influential theory Development is more continuous Larger emphasis on social factors Vygotsky Zone of proximal development The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help

Vygotsky By age 7, children become more capable of thinking in words to work out solutions Internalize culture’s language and rely on “inner speech”

Autism Theory of Mind and Autism It can be difficult for children with autism to read others’ facial expressions May lack mirror neurons

Social Development Stranger anxiety Begins about 8 months

Social Development Origins of Attachment Body contact Nearly as important as food for healthy development Harry Harlow’s studies Familiarity Critical period Imprinting Sensitive period

Social Development Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” KNOW THIS! Secure attachment forms when parents consistently meet infant’s needs by being warm and responsive – most cases (66%) Insecure attachment forms when parents fail to fully meet infant’s needs by being neglectful and inconsistent

Social Development Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting Easy, difficult & slow to warm up babies Erikson’s Basic trust

Social Development Deprivation of Attachment Early deprivation of attachment Romanian orphanages If deprivation lasts more than 8 months, damage can last Disruption of attachment Separated from families, children become upset and withdrawn Can recover is disruption is not permanent Does day care affect attachment? Good day care does not harm and can actually help Poor day care can have adverse affects

Social Development Self-Concept About 8-10 years old our self-image becomes fairly stable Self-esteem How we feel about who we are Self-awareness About 15-18 months

Social Development Parenting Styles Parenting styles (Diana Baumrind) Authoritarian Impose rules Expect obedience Permissive Make few demands Use little punishment Authoritative Demanding responsive Correlation versus causation May be some third factor Child’s traits may influence parenting

Social Development Culture and Child-Rearing Differences in child-rearing from culture to culture

Gender Development Gender Influences on social development

Gender Development Gender Similarities and Differences Gender and aggression Aggression Physical versus relational aggression Gender and social power Leadership roles have traditionally gone to men Assertive behavior in interactions Talking more, smiling less Gender and social connectedness Females are more interdependent Males value freedom and self-reliance

Gender Development The Nature of Gender Sex chromosomes X chromosome Y chromosome Sex hormones Testosterone

Gender Development The Nurture of Gender Gender Role Role Gender and child -rearing Gender identity Gender typing Social learning theory

Gender Development The Nurture of Gender

Parents and Peers

Parents and Early Experiences Experience and brain development

Parents and Early Experiences Experience and brain development

Parents and Early Experiences Experience and brain development

Parents and Early Experiences Experience and brain development

Parents and Early Experiences Experience and brain development

Parents and Early Experiences How much credit (or blame) do parents deserve? Larger influence on political and religious views and personal matters, values Education, discipline, responsibility Only about 10% of differences in personality measures can be attributed to parenting

Peer Influence Peer influence Learning cooperation Inventing styles of interaction with others of the same age Finding the road to popularity

Adolescence

Introduction Adolescence

Puberty Physical Development Primary sexual characteristics Secondary sexual characteristics Timing of sexual characteristics Begin at about 11 for girls and 13 for boys

Physical Development

Physical Development

Cognitive Development Developing Reasoning Power Piaget’s formal operations

Cognitive Development Developing Morality Lawrence Kohlberg Preconventional morality Before age 9 – focused on self-interest Obey rules to avoid punishment Conventional morality Early adolescence Follow rules because they are the rules Postconventional morality Adulthood – doing what is believed to be “right” Moral feeling – stronger guide than reason Moral action Behavior less selfish, more caring Delayed gratification – (Marshmallow Test)

Social Development Erickson was a neo-Freudian and built on Freud’s psychoanalytic theories As with Freud, a criticism of Erickson is that his theories are not as empirical and cannot be tested as some other Developmental Psychologists

Social Development (Erickson) Forming an identity Identity Failure to set goals and pursue them can stem from a search for identity Social identity Intimacy Parent and peer relationships

Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood

Adulthood

Physical changes in middle adulthood Physical changes in later life Physical Development Physical changes in middle adulthood Menopause Physical changes in later life Life expectancy Sensory abilities Health Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease

Cognitive Development Aging and Memory Recall versus recognition Prospective memory

Cognitive Development Aging and Intelligence Cross-Sectional Evidence Cross-sectional study Longitudinal Evidence Longitudinal study It all depends Crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence

Social Development Adulthood’s Ages and Stages Midlife transition Social clock

Social Development Adulthood Commitments Love Work

Social Development Well-Being Across the Life Span Death and dying

Biopsychosocial Influences on Successful Aging

Biopsychosocial Influences on Successful Aging

Biopsychosocial Influences on Successful Aging

Biopsychosocial Influences on Successful Aging

Reflections on Three Major Developmental Issues

Three Major Developmental Issues Nature versus nurture Continuity and stages Stability and change

Continuity and Stages

Continuity and Stages

Continuity and Stages

Continuity and Stages

The End

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Definition Slides

Developmental Psychology = the study of age-related changes in behavior and mental processes from conception to death

Zygote = the fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo = the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus = the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens = agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) = physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Habituation = decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation = biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Cognition = all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema = categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. A child has a schema about a type of animal such as a dog

Assimilation = interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. Seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation = adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. If child’s concept of a dog only included small dog’s due to her experience, she would need to include larger dogs into her schema when she saw one. She would then alter her schema in light of this new information

Sensorimotor Stage = in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence = the awareness that things continue to exist when not perceived.

Preoperational Stage = in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic..

Conservation = the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Egocentrism = in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

Theory of Mind = people’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Concrete Operational Stage = in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage = in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Autism = a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of other’s states of mind.

Stranger Anxiety = the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Attachment = an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Critical Period = an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

Imprinting = the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.

Temperament = a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Basic Trust = according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Self-concept = our understanding and evaluation of who we are.

Gender = in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Aggression = physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

X Chromosome = the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome =the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone = the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Role = a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Gender Role = a set of expected behaviors for males or for females.

Gender Identity = our sense of being male or female.

Gender Typing = the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Social Learning Theory = the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Adolescence = the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty = the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary Sexual Characteristics = the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characteristics = nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Menarche = the first menstrual period.

Identity = our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social Identify = the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

Intimacy = in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Emerging Adulthood = for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

Menopause = the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Cross-sectional Study = a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

Longitudinal Study = research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

Crystallized Intelligence = our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence = our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Social Clock = the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.