MenuPreviousNext The History of Oceanography - Why Study It? nOceanography: a science that deals with the oceans and includes the delimitation of their extent and depth, the physics and chemistry of their waters, marine biology, and the exploitation of their resources. nThree very good reasons to learn the history of oceanography:  The history of oceanography is connected to the world’s overall history.  Oceanography’s past helps us understand why and how people apply marine sciences today.  It is interesting.

MenuPreviousNext The History of Oceanography - Why Study It? nThe history of oceanography can be divided into four stages:  Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C A.D.)  The Middle Ages ( )  European Voyages of Discovery ( )  The Birth of Marine Science ( )

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.) nThree primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean:  To obtain food.  Trade with other cultures.  To discover new lands. nPast civilizations used the sun and stars, patterns of seabirds, and wind and wave patterns to navigate the oceans. nThe earliest recorded sea voyage appears to be 3200 B.C. under the auspices of Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru.

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries nThe Phoenicians contributed to ocean exploration by establishing the first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean, even as far north as Great Britain. nThe significance of Polynesian seafaring is that it is the earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean sailing beyond sight of land. nSpreading eastward from Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, Polynesians settled islands in an area of about 26 million square kilometers (10 million square miles).

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries nThe Greeks used references on shore to navigate. This is called piloting.  As seafaring advanced they learned to use the sun, constellations, the North Star and sea conditions to navigate in the open ocean.  The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat.

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries nPytheas noted that he could predict tides in the Atlantic based on the phases of the moon.  He could determine how far North or South one was from the North Star by measuring the angle between the horizon and the North Star.  This was a significant improvement in navigation.

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries Watch : nEratosthenes ( B.C.) is credited with two contributions:  He calculated the Earth’s circumference.  He invented the first latitude/longitude system. nIn 127 B.C., Hipparchus improved Eratosthenes’ maps by inventing the regular grid system.

MenuPreviousNext Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries nIn A.D., Ptolemy developed the first known map to show a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper.  It showed latitude/longitude by dividing the grid into degrees, minutes, and seconds of the arc. nThe purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system is to identify specific locations on the Earth’s surface, even in the absence of landmarks.

MenuPreviousNext Latitude/Longitude System nLatitude Lines:  Also called parallels.  Run east-west.  0º parallel is also called the equator. nLongitude Lines:  Also called meridians.  Run north-south.  Prime Meridian is located on the longitude of the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England.

MenuPreviousNext Latitude/Longitude System nFurther Accuracy:  Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutes are subdivided into 60 seconds.  Most scientists use decimal degrees. Titanic Location ˚ W ˚ N As expressed in Decimal Degrees Watch:

MenuPreviousNext Tools for Measuring Latitude nThe quadrant is a very simple tool that allows the user to determine his or her latitude by measuring the altitude of a heavenly body.  During the day mariners would line the sights with the sun and measure the angle between the sun and the horizon. This is the latitude.  At night mariners could use Polaris (the North Star) located directly over the North Pole or, if they were in the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Cross located almost directly above the South Pole instead of the sun.. nA sextant measured latitude with greater accuracy.

MenuPreviousNext The European Middle Ages nDecline of the Roman Empire broke Europe into many isolated communities.  This breakup hindered communication of scientific discoveries and knowledge.  The Catholic Church rose to power, which may have influenced the communication of scientific discoveries. nAlso known as the Dark Ages because during this time further advancements in the knowledge of geography and science were suppressed in Europe.  Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made, only trade continued. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)

MenuPreviousNext Viking Explorations and Discoveries nThe Vikings were the only people with significant exploration taking place in Europe during the Dark Ages:  They established trade routes throughout Britain, Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia.  In the 9th century there was a global warming that freed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the Vikings to explore westward discovering Iceland, Greenland, and North America.

MenuPreviousNext Chinese Explorations and Discoveries nThe Chinese were very active explorers during the Middle Ages and were responsible for many important contributions.  Probably the most important of their discoveries was the magnetic compass dating about 1000 A.D. and in widespread use about  Europe’s first reference to the compass was in 1190 in a poem, but was not widely used until the 1400s. nBy the mid 1400s in China, shipbuilding was well established.  Chinese ships from that period had central rudders and watertight compartments – these are part of today’s modern ships.

MenuPreviousNext The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa nThe period of is called the Renaissance. A new interest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th century was motivated by economics, politics and religion. nThree explorers tried to establish a route to the East around Africa:  The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal in the early 1400s. He went down the west coast of Africa, but did not find a route around the Cape of Good Hope.  The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but did not make it all the way to India.  The third was Vasco da Gamma ( ). He led the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India. European Voyages of Discovery ( )

MenuPreviousNext Exploration of the New World nLike other explorers of the time, Christopher Columbus was seeking a route to Asia for trade with Europe.  Columbus’ estimate of the world’s size was too small because he used Ptolemy’s estimates. This is why he thought he could reach India easier by sailing west instead of sailing east.  When he landed on a Caribbean island, he thought he’d reached India. It was later realized he’d found a continent unknown to Europeans.

MenuPreviousNext Exploration of the New World nBetween , Amerigo Vespucci voyaged to South America.  He explored much of the east coast, the mouth of the Amazon River, and is credited as the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent.  The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci. nIn the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led an expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the first European to sail in the Pacific.  News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americas renewed the hope that one could sail around the world west-to-east.

MenuPreviousNext Exploration of the New World nIn 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world. He had five ships and about 260 men. nThe second successful circumnavigation of the world was made in 1577 by Francis Drake.  He left England for the New World with the purpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlements for treasure.  Drake returned to England in 1580 where he was knighted for his exploits as well as for bringing back treasure and spices worth a fortune.  Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight with islanders.  One ship and 18 men completed the journey in 1522.

MenuPreviousNext Cook’s Expeditions nThe voyages of Captain James Cook receive credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to methodical, scientific oceanography:  His reports changed the western view of the world.  He discovered Australia, New Zealand, many The Birth of Marine Science ( ) islands in the South Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, the West Coast of the US and Canada, the Bering Strait and the Antarctic Circle.

MenuPreviousNext Cook’s Expeditions nA major contribution to Cook’s voyages was the invention of the chronometer:  In 1735, John Harrison invented a clock that runs accurately at sea. This made it possible to determine longitude accurately. HarrisonH1H4 Watch:

MenuPreviousNext The United States Exploring Expedition nUnder command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, it was one of the first significant scientific expeditions launched by the US:  The objective was to explore the southern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to collect specimens, and to map, illustrate and provide text to document their discoveries. nThe most outstanding achievement of the US Exploring Expedition was proving the existence of Antarctica.

MenuPreviousNext Matthew Maury: Father of Physical Oceanography nBetween , Matthew Maury published many detailed works on sea navigation. He earned global acclaim for his work and his data was adopted worldwide:  In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea, which is now considered the first textbook on modern oceanography and he is remembered today as the father of physical oceanography.

MenuPreviousNext Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle nThe Beagle began its five-year voyage with Charles Darwin as the ship’s naturalist in The H.M.S. Beagle ultimately circled the Earth. nDarwin noted that coral grows in relatively shallow, warm, upper depths:  But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral grows. Darwin observed the massive reefs must form when the sea floor slowly sinks and coral grows upward from its base to remain in shallow water. nDarwin is renowned for his theories on natural selection and the evolution of species.

MenuPreviousNext The Challenger Expedition nThe Challenger expedition ( ), is known and recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science:  The two men responsible for the mission were Scottish professor, Sir Charles Wyville Thomson and British naturalist, Sir John Murray.

MenuPreviousNext The Challenger Expedition nAmong its accomplishments and discoveries, the expedition:  Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000 meters (13,123 feet) – 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the Marianas Trench.  Captured biological samples in midwater and along the bottom with a towed device.  Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean, contrary to popular belief at the time.  Sampled and illustrated plankton in various habitats and depths not previously studied.  Cataloged and identified 715 new genera and 4,717 new species.

MenuPreviousNext The Oceanography Explosion Twentieth-Century Marine Science nThe Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growth and expansion of marine sciences. This included:  Better ships made of iron with steam engines.  Improvements in the design and building of research equipment.  SONAR  The advent of the submarine and other smaller submersibles.  Global conflict helping to accelerate research in science and technology.  Self-contained diving (SCUBA)  Satellites

MenuPreviousNext Mapping with Sonar nDuring World War II navy leaders realized that they could detect submarines using sound transmitted through water. Huge efforts began to develop sonar, a word that is a combination of abbreviations (an “acronym”) for “sound,” “navigation” and “ranging”. nThe German Meteor Expedition (1925)  Primary accomplishment was mapping the Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding technology.  Data collected established patterns for ocean water circulation, nutrient dispersal, and plankton growth.

MenuPreviousNext nThe United States Atlantis Expedition – 1931  The first ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies.  Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as well as confirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and mapped it. nThe H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951  Mission to measure the depths of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.  Challenger II’s most noted discovery was finding the deepest known part of the ocean. At about 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep, this is still the deepest known place in the world. This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, was named Challenger Deep in honor of the first Challenger expedition.

MenuPreviousNext Satellites and Electronic Navigation nSatellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the ocean. nSatellites provide continuous measurements of variables such as surface height, shape, temperature and color, over the entire planet. nThey are an effective way for oceanographers to look at very large areas of the world in a very short period. nInformation gathered from satellites has largely replaced measurements taken directly at sea. nThe first electronic navigation came into use in the late 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation). Accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters. nToday we use GPS - Global Positioning System.

MenuPreviousNext United States Oceanographic Institution nIn 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to "consider the share of the United States of America in a worldwide program of oceanographic research." This led to the founding in 1930 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI).  It is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U.S.  Their research agenda includes: geological activity deep within the earth; plant, animal, and microbial populations and their interactions in the ocean; coastal erosion; ocean circulation; ocean pollution; and global climate change

MenuPreviousNext International Cooperation Efforts nA transatlantic telegraph cable is an undersea cable running under the Atlantic Ocean used for telegraph communications. The first communications occurred August 16, 1858, reducing the communication time between North America and Europe from ten days – the time it took to deliver a message by ship – to a matter of minutes. Transatlantic telegraph cables have been replaced by transatlantic telecommunications cables. nThe International Geophysical Year (IGY) was an international effort to coordinate the collection of geophysical data from around the world. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War when scientific interchange between East and West had been seriously interrupted.