The Sarajevo Crisis

Assassination of Francis Ferdinand The local crisis which led to outbreak of World War I concerned assassination of heir to Austro-Hungarian throne (& his wife) on June 28 th, Assassin was Gavrilo Princip, a young Bosnian Serb who belonged to underground Serbian nationalist society called “Union or Death” (aka “The Black Hand”). Habsburg government, already fearful that Serbia, with Russian backing, was turning into potential Piedmont or Prussia, (i.e. a state to lead national unification, in this case of Slavs), treated murders as Serbian provocation of war. After getting assurances of support from German ally, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia, with demands that were virtually impossible for Serbia to accept.

Outbreak of World War I (1) Austrian ultimatum directly challenged Serbian sovereignty demanding Austrian officials take part in investigating & punishing all those involved in planning the assassination. Serbia’s response was quite moderate, but rejected demands seen to challenge its sovereignty. While aware of superior power of Austro-Hungarian state, Serbs felt relatively confident Russia could not afford to lose prestige in Balkans & so would not leave Serbia alone. Russia, in turn, counted on France for support & France, terrified of possibility of again being caught alone in war with Germany, was determined to keep Russia an ally. When Serbia refused to fully accept ultimatum, Austria- Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 th July 1914.

Princip, Ferdinand & Sophie

Outbreak of World War I (2) 30 th July Russia began to mobilize its forces in support of Serbia. Expecting that Germany would assist Austria-Hungary, it also mobilized its forces along German frontier. Next day Germany began to mobilize its own forces & with Russians failing to respond to German demands that they end their own military activities, Germany declared war against Russia on August 1 st. Feeling certain that France would also join the war in support of Russia, Germans also declared war against France (Aug 3 rd ).

Britain Enters the War While Germans had been somewhat concerned about danger of escalation of war, many German leaders mistakenly believed that in final analysis British would not get involved in the conflict... But they were wrong! Britain had joined Triple Entente in an attempt to maintain a balance-of-power in Europe & particularly to counter danger of German domination. When Germany invaded Belgium, (the neutrality of whose territory had been guaranteed by the 5 great powers since 1839), there was a united outcry & anger among the British public. The same day, 4 th August, Britain declared war on Germany.

Major Causes of World War I Colonial Rivalries Colonial Rivalries Growing Industrial/Commercial Rivalry Growing Industrial/Commercial Rivalry The Alliance System The Alliance System Arms Race (esp. naval between Germany & Britain) Arms Race (esp. naval between Germany & Britain) Rivalries in the Balkans Rivalries in the Balkans

The Schlieffen Plan * Map from

The Schlieffen Plan (2) This German plan aimed to quickly defeat France on the western front using overwhelming force, & then, within 6 weeks, before Russia had had time to fully mobilize, to use the developed German railway network to transport troops from the west to now focus their energies on Russia. It was believed that if France could be defeated within such a quick period, then Britain would not have enough time to gather all its forces & power.

THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN (3)

Reasons for Failure of Schlieffen Plan Fearing French would invade Lorraine, German General Helmuth von Moltke reduced number of soldiers involved in main northern attack on France in order to defend this territory. Belgium put up stronger resistance than Germans had expected. Russia mobilized faster than had been anticipated. British & French launched a successful joint counter-attack & in Battle of the Marne managed to halt the German advance & thereafter maintain British support & supplies to France via the Channel ports.

Trench Warfare & Stalemate on the Western Front With new weapon of machine-gun, (but before use of planes & tanks became more widespread), soldiers fighting on open fields of western front who had dug themselves into long lines of trenches became quite immobile, locked in a position of stalemate or deadlock. Massive attacks brought little gain in terms of territory, but caused v. high levels of casualties. (e.g. Verdun & Somme)

Machine-Guns in World War I

The War at Sea (1) Unable to make progress on land, both sides began to focus attention on the seas. British, with French support, enforced a strict blockade against Germany & her allies, that slowly began to weaken the enemy’s economy & reduce their war-making capacity. German navy was relatively weaker, but had one advantage which it used to try & retaliate... The U-boat.

The Sinking of the Lusitania (1) In Feb 1915 Germans declared waters around the British isles a war-zone, stated that all Entente ships in area would be attacked & warned that, (partly because of basic technology of submarines), neutral shipping would also be at risk. May 1915 Germans mistakenly sunk the passenger ship the Lusitania which was travelling under the American flag. Over half of the c.2000 passengers drowned, & over 100 of these were Americans. American public was outraged & President Woodrow Wilson declared that if a similar incident occurred again the US would consider this “deliberately unfriendly”. Concerned by Wilson’s threat, Germans thereafter avoided full use of their submarines until latter stages of the war, providing the Entente powers with important relief.

The Sinking of the Lusitania (2) There is now some evidence that the US & Britain were not as innocent as they claimed, & that Lusitania was not only carrying passengers, but also “contraband” goods that may have contributed to the ship’s sinking. There is now some evidence that the US & Britain were not as innocent as they claimed, & that Lusitania was not only carrying passengers, but also “contraband” goods that may have contributed to the ship’s sinking.

The Sinking of the Lusitania (3)

America Enters the War When Germans again began unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917, it became a cause of US entry into war. Gradually, by end 1916, blockade hurting Germans who were suffering shortages of vital materials. They took a calculated risk, believing that if they could crush Britain within 6 months by cutting-off her contact overseas, then even if US entered war, it would take too long for her to project her power. There had been strong non-interventionist stand among American public, & even some pro-German sentiment, but Americans progressively began backing Wilson’s position of support for Entente powers & accepting US entry into war. Aside from anger at sinking of US ships, American public also turned against Germans when in Jan it learned of the ‘Zimmermann Telegram’.

The Zimmermann Telegram (1) German Foreign Minister Artur Zimmermann sent a message to the Mexican government calling upon Mexico to form an alliance with Germany & promising German support in getting back ‘lost territories’ of Texas, New Mexico & Arizona, taken by US in US- Mexican war of

The Zimmermann Telegram (2) On the left is a copy of the telegram from the U.S. National Archives. (Available at Lesson_72_Notes.htm)

Wilson & the ‘Fourteen Points’ (1) Revolution in Russia in March 1917 (see below) also made it easier for Americans to follow lead of President Wilson & openly support the Entente. With authoritarian government of Tsar overthrown & more liberal provisional government established, Americans could see themselves as fighting for ideals, on side of liberalism, democracy “civilization” * Images available at &

Wilson & the ‘Fourteen Points’ (2) In Jan Woodrow Wilson publicly outlined his idealist objectives for peace after the war in his ‘Fourteen Points’. Wilson called for “peace without victors”, strengthening of democracy, national self-determination, an end to secret diplomacy & agreements, free trade, general disarmament & an international organization, the ‘League of Nations’ to preserve world peace. WOODROW WILSON

Wilson & the ‘League of Nations’ (1)

The Russian Revolution(s)

Russia, 1917 If US entry to War was one major development of 1917, the 2 nd was Russian Revolution. Though it ultimately led to Russia’s withdrawal from war, its impact was long-lasting & global. In March 1917* Tsar was overthrown & a provisional government of liberals & social democrats, which determined to continue war took over. The people, however, were tired of war, & new government’s military efforts proved no more successful than those of Tsar. By November 1917*, in confusion & instability caused by major military defeats, public discontent & hunger, socialists led by Vladimir Lenin (& known as Bolsheviks), managed to carry-out a coup overthrowing provisional government & taking control of Russia. * According to calendar used in Russia at the time, dates were actually February & October, so names “February Revolution” & “October Revolution” often used.

The Bolshevik Revolution 2 major factors seen as contributing to Bolsheviks’ desire to end Russian involvement in War: 1) Pragmatic: Russia & the Russians were exhausted. The war effort had little popular support, & by giving the people what they wanted, i.e. peace, the Bolsheviks could hope to gain their sympathy & support. 2) Ideological: As far as their political beliefs were concerned the Bolsheviks saw this War as a war between capitalist & imperialist powers. They preferred to see these powers destroy each other. Despite having to make major concessions, Bolsheviks therefore finally signed peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany on 3 rd March 1918.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

The End of the First World War Despite successfully ending war with Russia, & the initial success of renewed submarine warfare, entry of US into War proved decisive. Her fresh, well-equipped forces turned balance against exhausted Germany & her allies. Within a few months British navy developed new means to combat German submarine warfare, incl. use of depth-charges & large convoys. By mid-1918 Germany & her allies were under severe attack on all fronts & German generals insisted time had now come to make peace... before German heartland was itself invaded. German emperor abdicated on 9 th Nov & fled to neutral Holland, & 2 days later Germans signed an armistice to end War.

The Paris Peace Conference The international peace settlement following WWI was reached at Conference of Paris (Jan Jan. 1920). Conference & various treaties that resulted from it can generally be seen as a failure. Esp. controversial, undoubtedly a failure, has been Treaty of Versailles that was concluded with Germany. Other 4 treaties, which met with various degrees of success were: Treaty of St. Germain with Austria Treaty of Trianon with Hungary Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey

The Paris Peace Conference (2) Together these treaties created a new map for Europe, with the political map of Eastern Europe in particular being completely revised. 7 new independent states were created largely upon the territories held by powers that had been on the losing side: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland&, Czechoslovakia & Yugoslavia.* * The latter 2 are no more, & the 3 Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania only recently regained their independence after Soviet occupation.

The Treaty of Versailles Many have argued Treaty of Versailles itself became a cause of rise of Hitler & of eventual outbreak of World War II. Signed in same location German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871, (‘Hall of Mirrors’), harsh conditions of treaty too humiliating for Germans to accept. Others have argued opposite... That the treaty was too lenient, & any potential future German threat should have been completely eliminated by even harder terms. Hall of Mirrors Palace of Versailles

Major Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles (1) 1. Germany forced to evacuate lands occupied during the War (e.g. Baltic states taken from Russia as a consequence of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) 2. Alsace & Lorraine returned to France 3. Plebiscite to be held to decide the future of Schleswig 4. Germany’s military capacity v. seriously limited: a) army no greater than 100,000 men b) no longer permitted to build tanks, military planes, or heavy artillery c) size of German navy restricted to 36 vessels (no submarines & naval base of Heligoland destroyed)

Major Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles (2) 5. Germany prohibited from having any military positions to left of Rhine River, or for 50km to right. 6. Output of Saar coalmines given to France for 15 years & the region to be administered by League of Nations during this period, & then to undergo a plebiscite 7. Occupation forces to remain in Rhineland till all reparations paid (actual sum of reparations to be decided by a Reparations Commission) 8. Germany to give-up some former eastern lands for establishment of independent Polish & Czech states 9. Germany to lose all her colonies (to be administered under the mandate system) 10. Germany to commit to never attempt ‘Anschluss’

World War I Peace Settlement in Europe & the Middle East (1)

World War I Peace Settlement in Europe & the Middle East (2)

Germany’s Western Frontier

World War I Peace Settlement in Europe & the Middle East

Wilson & the ‘League of Nations’