By mid century, Russia was facing significant challenges and needed to modernize the government and army in order to compete with the Great Powers.

Alexander II mirs Zemstovs Land and Freedom The People’s Will Alexander III

The Crimean War ( ), fought over domination of the Balkans, brought the need to modernize sharply into focus Russia was defeated by the combined forces of France, Britain, Sardinia-Piedmont, and the Ottoman Empire, mostly because of it’s inadequate transportation system. Russia failed to gain access to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea and its industrial backwardness and desperate need for railroads and modern armaments became apparent

Russia’s population had grown rapidly in the 19 th century, although the economy remained largely agrarian Agricultural estates were dependent on the unpaid labor of serfs who were little better off than U. S. slaves. Serfs could also be recruited into the army for a mandatory 25 years of service. Peasant discontent was intensified by the hardships of the Crimean War. Fearful of an outright rebellion, Tsar Alexander II emancipate the serfs in 1861 and granted them land for which they had to pay for. The land was not given to individuals but to village communities, mirs, which were responsible for the payments for the land and taxes

Local assemblies, the zemstvos, were organized in The government encouraged industrialization, particularly the building of railroads after 1860 and of factories around Moscow and St. Petersburg Industrialization brought benefits to Russia’s military, which pleased nationalists, but also lead to the introduction of Marxist ideas. Originally, however, Russian radicals were not Marxist but anarchists who advocated the use of terrorism and assassination to bring down the government. When terrorists assassinated Alexander II in 1881, the new Tsars, Alexander III ( )and Nicholas II ( )rejected reform Political repression remained in force, but economic modernization proceeded