The Development of Man and Civilizations

Hunter/Gatherer Societies The life of early hunter/gatherer societies was shaped by their physical environment –Survival depended on availability of wild plants and animals

Development of Man Early Man Homo Habilis –Appeared in east Africa 2.5 million years ago –First hominid to use tools Homo Erectus –Appeared 1.6 million years ago –First hominid to migrate out of Africa –Used extensive technology –More intelligent, larger brain –Used fire and developed spoken language for the first time

Homo Habilis

Homo erectus

Development of Man Modern Man Homo Sapiens-emerged 100,000 to 400,000 years ago in Europe –Neanderthals 200,000 to 30,000 years ago Tried to explain and control their environment Developed religion, spiritual life very rich as evidenced by funerals Used technology –Cro-Magnon Man 40,000 years ago Identical to modern humans Studied animals and their habits in order to plan hunts Had greater control of language which helped them to organize (gave them an edge over Neanderthals and helped them increase their population)

Homo sapien-Neanderthal

Homo sapien-Cro-Magnon

The Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) 2.5 million years ago until 8,000 B.C. Nomadic –Migrated in search of food, water, and shelter Invented the first tools including simple weapons Learned how to make fire lived in clans developed oral language created “cave art”

The Neolithic Era (Neolithic Revolution/New Stone Age) 8,000 years ago until about 3,000 B.C. Also known as the agricultural revolution –Developed agriculture and domestication of animals Eliminated nomadic tendencies Slash and burn farming technique -cut and burned fields of trees or grass; leftover ash fertilized soil; used field for 1-2 years and then moved on Slowly tamed animals and used them for food and labor Steady food source=settling down of man used advanced tools made pottery developed weaving skills

Archaeology Archaeologists study past cultures by locating and analyzing human remains, fossils, and artifacts –Show us how people dressed, worded, worshipped, etc. Apply scientific test such as carbon dating to analyze fossils and artifacts –Famous Archaeological Finds Mary Leakey Laetoli in Tanzania (East Africa) Pre-Historic footprints of humanlike beings called Australopithecines Donald Johanson Ethiopia (Africa) “Lucy” is 3.5 million years ago (oldest hominid found to date)

Archeaelogy

Archaeology-Stonehenge Stonehenge -archaeological site in England that was begun during the Neolithic Age and completed during the Bronze Age (begun around 3000 B.C. when people began to use bronze (copper and tin mix) to make tools and weapons instead of stone or wood)

Stonehenge-England

The Growth of Civilizations Villages Grow into Cities –Population grows as nomadic hunter-gatherers settle into village life –Economic changes Large cities build irrigation systems to raise more crops which result in food surpluses Some individuals can now pursue other jobs and develop new skills Ancient settlers become craftspeople (make metal objects, pottery, woven goods) Merchants now had more goods to trade The wheel and the sail enable traders to transport more goods over longer distances –Social Changes More complex and prosperous economy results in a more complex set of social classes People with varying degrees of wealth and power start to emerge as cities grow

The Definition of Civilization –Advanced Cities-center of trade for a larger area (farmers, merchants, and traders bring goods to city to do business); not just dependent on population although cities have large populations –Specialized Workers-traders, government officials, priests, etc. People develop skills in a specific kind of work because they no longer need to worry about getting food. Artisans are skilled workers who make goods by hand. –Complex Institutions-Government, religion, and economy are examples of institutions. An institution is a long-lasting pattern of organization in a community. Temples in cities became important institutions where religious, economic, and governmental activities took place. –Record Keeping-As government, religion, and trade became more complex people needed to keep records (tax collection, passage of laws, rituals, etc.). Sumerian scribes (professional record-keepers) used cuneiform to keep records. Some began to keep record of important events which became the first written histories of cities. –Advanced Technology-New tools and techniques were needed to solve problems. Animals were used for labor with the invention of the plow, irrigation systems for watering crops. Development also of pottery wheel and bronze (mix of copper and tin) to make weapons and tools.

Civilization in Ur: One of the earliest cities of Sumer (around 3000 B.C.) on the banks of the Euphrates river –Agricultural Economy: ox-driven plows, irrigation systems help to create food surpluses –City Life: most live in one-story homes, wealthy live in two-story homes; artisans keep shops –Trade: artisans, farmers, and merchants trade their goods and scribes keep track (barter system: trading goods and services without money) –Ziggurat: the temple of the city, terms means “mountain of god”; the center of the city where priests do rituals

Ziggurat in Ur

River Valley Civilizations ( B.C.) River Valleys offered rich soils for agriculture and tended to be in locations easily protected from invasion by nomadic peoples, and thus served as the perfect places for the birth of civilizations. –Mesopotamian Civilizations-Tigris and Euphrates River Valley (Southwest Asia) –Indian Civilization-Indus River Valley (South Asia) –Chinese Civilization-Huang He River Valley (East Asia) –Egyptian Civilization-Nile River Valley and Delta (Africa)

Mesopotamian Civilization Geography of the Fertile Crescent –Land between the Mediterranean Sea and Southwest Asia has a dry desert climate –Fertile Crescent-small crescent shaped area of land that is very fertile due to annual flooding of the rivers which leaves silt (rich soil) which is used by farmers to grow surpluses of crops Environmental challenges and Solutions for Sumer and its city-states –Flooding was unpredictable and land quickly dried up. Solution: build irrigation ditches –No natural barriers for protection from invasion Solution: build city-states with government and armies to try to protect cities –Natural resources were limited Solution: trade (barter) with other peoples

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian Civilization Sumerian City-States and Social Hierarchy –Sumer is the first civilization, set apart by five characteristics - advanced cities-complex institutionsadvanced technology -specialized workers-record keeping –City-state (Sumer’s city-states include: Uruk, Kish, Lagah, Umma, and Ur) - each city was part of Sumer but had its own independent government, rulers, and army –Sumer’s Government and Social Hierarchy Social Hierarchy (rigid class system where slavery was accepted) - Priests: powerful because they were the intermediary between god and city -Monarchs: leaders of armies became head of government, even in times of peace; would hand power over to heir creating a dynasty (power remains in hands of one family-hereditary rulers) -Merchants: wealthy traders -Artisans and farmers -Slaves

Mesopotamian Civilization Sumerian Religion Religion is central in Sumerian city-states and other ancient civilizations Polytheistic: belief in many gods; belief that gods are much like humans except they have special powers and are immortal

The First Empires empire brings together peoples, nations, or independent states under one ruler –Sargon of Akkad (Semitic leader who took control about 2350 B.C.; dynasty lasted about 200 years) -Defeated Sumerian city-states but had already adopted and spread Sumerian culture -created first empire which fell 200 years later due to internal fighting and invasion –Babylonian Empire (Amorite invasion, established around 2000 B.C.; lasted about 200 years) -established capital at Babylon on banks of Euphrates river -peak of power under Hammurabi from B.C. -First code of law: Hammurabi’s Code put together 282 different laws -covered many issues (family, land, etc.; punishment was often retaliatory (“eye for an eye”) -reflected belief that government has a responsibility to those it governs -reflected class differences

The First Empires Sargon-Akkadian Empire Hammurabi- –Code of Law –Hanging Gardens

The Indus River Valley Civilization Geography –The two most important rivers whose annual flooding provided rich silt for agriculture in the Indus River Civilization were the Indus and the Ganges –Physical barriers such as the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, and the Indian Ocean made invasion more difficult Mountain passes in the Hindu Kush provided invasion routes into the Indian subcontinent –Because the rivers flowed into the Indian Ocean they opened up the civilization to trade with other peoples, including the Mesopotamians

Indus River Valley Civilization

Indus River Valley Culture and its End –Archaeological evidence suggests that social divisions were not great and that the economy was prosperous –Religious artifacts reveal links to modern Hindu culture –Early Indians also conducted long-distance trade –Neared its end around 1500 B.C.

Invasion of the Aryans (Indo-Aryans) –Indo-Europeans were semi-nomadic peoples from the steppes—dry grasslands that stretched north of the Caucasus (mountains between the Black and Caspian seas) predecessor of Indo-European languages begin to migrate and settle throughout Europe and Asia

Aryan Migration out of steppes

Aryans come through Hindu Kush –Aryans entered India through the pass in the Hindu Kush mountains and asserted their dominance

Caste system introduced –Established a rigid caste system which was hereditary (your station was passed down from your parents) Brahmins: priests Warriors Peasants/Traders Laborers/Craftsmen “Untouchables” people who’s jobs made them unclean (butchers, gravediggers, etc.) –Vedas-sacred literature which consisted of prayers, spells, and instructions for rituals left us a good record of Aryan life

The Gupta Empire 300 A.D. (Named for founder Chandra Gupta) –Chandra Gupta established India’s second great empire in 320 A.D. by marrying the daughter of an old influential family –Reaches peak around 375 A.D. and empire begins to break up with the death of Chandra Gupta II around 415 A.D. –Golden Age of classical Indian culture and its contributions this period started a highly productive period in literature, art, science, and mathematics that continued until roughly A.D. 500 Mathematics: modern numerals, the zero, and the decimal system; value of pi and calculation of the solar year new textiles literature

Hinduism Origins and beliefs Sacred writings: Vedas and Upanishads (meditations and comments on Vedas and other important questions (what is morality, is there eternal life, what is the soul, etc.) reincarnation: (rebirth) an individual soul or spirit is born again and again until moksha is achieved (perfect understanding) karma: (soul’s good or bad deeds) follows from one reincarnation to another; influences specific life circumstances caste system in religious law based on occupations (as above-untouchables labeled by job) Three Major gods god/deity can take on many forms Brahma: the creator, Vishnu: the protector, Shiva: the destroyer

Hindu god-three in one

Ancient China Geography –China’s Heartland (between the Huang He (Yellow) river and the Yangtze river): Fertile land which produced food supply and remained central focus of Chinese civilization. Loess is fertile soil left by flooding of the Huang He river –Two-thirds of China is desert or mountain, with remaining land mainly found between the two rivers –Barriers of desert and ocean left China fairly isolated from trade but migratory invaders were able to raid Chinese settlements from the North

Ancient China

Dynasties (Shang: B.C. and Zhou: B.C.) –The Shang dynasty was the first family to leave written records –They built elaborate palaces and tombs –The cities of the Shang were built mainly of wood and surrounded by earthen walls –The Zhou overthrew the Shang in 1027 B.C. –Claimed they had the Mandate of Heaven (royal authority comes from heaven)

Civilization: Culture, Society, and Technology –Family is central to Chinese society and respect for elders is most important –Religious beliefs centered around family as well— dead family members could help or hinder those left in life –Chinese writing was universal and the same throughout China, but it had an enormous number of symbols which made it difficult to learn –Social classes were distinct: The king came first, then the ruling class of nobles/warriors, then the peasants and farmers –Technology -Bronze working (bronze only for the wealthy) -development of silk clothing -iron used for weapons and tools which made farming more productive

Buddhism –Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) –Four Noble Truths: (1)life is suffering, (2)cause is desire, (3)end desire to end suffering, (4)attain enlightenment through Eightfold Path to end desire –Eightfold Path to Enlightenment (the Middle Way): (1)Right Views, (2)Right Resolve, (3)Right Speech, (4)Right Conduct, (5)Right Livelihood, (6)Right Effort, (7)Right Mindfulness, and (8)Right Concentration –Followed the Silk Road (trades routes through Central Asia) to reach China -Silk Roads facilitated trade and contact between China and other cultures as far away as Rome –Asoka, ruler of Mauryan empire in India in 269 B.C., and his missionaries followed and helped to spread Buddhism to China and other parts of Asia

The Silk Road

Confucianism shapes Chinese society (Confucius—scholor—around 500 B.C.) –Belief that humans are good, not bad –Respect for elders –Code of politeness still used in Chinese society today –Emphasis on education to turn people good –Ancestor worship –Helped create bureaucracy, a trained civil service, upon ideals of Confucianism

Confucius

Taoism shapes Chinese culture and values –Humility –Simple life and inner peace –Harmony with nature –Yin/Yang represented opposites for Confucianism and Taoism

Contributions of classical China –Civil service system –Paper –Porcelain –Silk

Shi Huangdi of Qin dynasty and the Great Wall –Qin takes over after Zhou dynasty –Shi Huangdi crushes opposition and develops autocracy (rule by one) –Centralized China: builds roads, standardized writing, laws, currency, and weights and measures –The Great Wall of China -built by peasants who were forced to labor -approximately 1400 miles long -meant to keep nomads from the North from invading -so huge that its visible from space

The Great Wall of China

Shi Huangdi

Phoenicians –Took over control of Mediterranean trade after fall of Minoan civilization on island of Crete –Settled along Mediterranean (part of Fertile Crescent) and also established city-states around sea including area that is today Lebanon. Most important city was Carthage –Amazing shipbuilders and seafarers, this led to widespread trade of goods and ideas –The Alphabet - used symbols to represent sounds; spread to Greeks; predecessor of our alphabet

The Phoenicians

The Phoenician Alphabet

The Hebrews Home in Palestine (called Canaan by Jews) between the Jordan river and the Mediterranean; the crossroads between Egypt and Assyria and Babylonia Kingdom of Israel established and grew under Saul, David, and Solomon -Kingdom divided into Israel and Judah; they are taken over by Babylonians -Babylonian captivity or exile: Jews sent to Babylon—helped to spread their beliefs DIASPORA-spreading out (the diaspora of Hebrews helped spread Judaism)

Hebrews in Jerusalem

Judaism Abraham is Father of the Jews; obeyed God and went from Ur (Mesopotamia) to Canaan to Egypt and back -Torah: written record of beliefs of the Hebrews -Monotheistic: belief in one God -Covenant: God (Yahweh) protects people because Abraham agrees to obey -Hebrews go to Egypt and become slaves; they are led out of Egypt by Moses -Moses given Ten Commandments atop Mt. Sinai during “Exodus”; these are the basis for civil and religious law

The Persians –550 B.C. Cyrus conquers neighbors and controls the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia (Turkey today) –Governing Style -tolerance of conquered people -development of imperial bureaucracy: provinces placed under control of governor (satrap) but takes orders from central ruler -Royal Road: (1677 miles) system of roads built to facilitate trade but also administration of government throughout empire

The Persian Empire

Zoroastrianism (Persian Religion) Zoraster is founder of religion -Good (god of truth and light) is Ahura Mazda vs. Bad (god of evil and darkness) is Ahriman -Final judgment at death, if you follow Ahura Mazda you will go to paradise, if you follow Ahriman, you go to the Underworld -ideas about heaven, hell, final judgment, and personal choices to decide fate all influence other religions (like Christianity)

Egypt The Old Kingdom ( B.C.) Geography of Egypt Nile is longest river in the world (4100 miles) and flows from south to north, emptying into the Mediterranean sea Annual flooding happens the same time every year; this predictability allows Egyptians to plan their planting and harvesting seasons; life is more optimistic than in Mesopotamia where flooding is unpredictable Deserts on either side help to keep them isolated and protect them from invasion The flow of the Nile allowed for easy trade of goods and ideas between Upper and Lower Egypt Egyptians also traded with other civilizations, especially the Mesopotamians

Egypt

Upper Egypt (to the South) skinny strip of land from the first cataract (granite cliffs and boulders turn river into rapids) to the point where the river starts to fan out into many branches Lower Egypt (to the North) last 750 miles before the Nile empties into the Mediterranean consists of the marshy Nile delta (about 100 miles before sea); rich soil provides home to many animals and plants Egypt Unites: The Old Kingdom ( B.C.) -Menes, strong ruler of Upper Egypt unites all of Egypt -established capital where Upper and Lower Egypt meet, at Memphis and started Egypt’s first dynasty -Pharaohs rule as gods and stand at center of religion and government -Pharaoh is seen as a god on earth (government where ruler is a divine figure is a theocracy) -Pyramids are built as tombs for the pharaohs who have eternal life and will continue to help rule even after death; pyramids are huge structures filled with everything a person would need in life

Menes and Mummification

Egyptian Religion Egyptians were polytheistic (Ra the sun god, Horus the god of light, Osiris the god of the dead) Believed in an afterlife decided by deeds on earth; eternal life in the Other World for the good and for the bad their soul would be eaten by the Devourer of Souls Mummification-embalming and drying of the corpse to preserve the body for the afterlife Many Egyptians prepared tombs for themselves and kept a copy of the Book of the Dead

Egyptian Society Society’s Pyramid with Pharaohs and his family on top, the upper class (priests, warriors, wealthy) second, and the commoners (laborers/farmers/slaves) on the bottom Egyptians could move up through marriage or success in their jobs People needed to be able to read and write to earn the best jobs Women had many of the same rights as men (marriage, divorce, land ownership)

Egyptian Writing Hieroglyphics (Greek for “sacred carving”) Started like Sumerian cuneiform because each symbol stood for an idea (like pictographs) Eventually the symbols stood also for sounds (like Phoenician alphabet) Developed papyrus (tall reeds that were soaked and dried together to make paper-like sheets) Rosetta Stone discovered in 1799 and had three languages on it, including hieroglyphics; helped archaeologists to figure out language

Ancient Writing

Egyptian Science and Technology Written numbers for counting, adding, subtracting; early form of geometry used to redraw boundary lines after floods; math calculations and engineering used to build pyramids Developed 365 day calendar by tracking the star now known as Sirius Medicine was both magic and scientific (understood pulse, surgery, splints for broken bones, etc.)

The First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom, and the Second Intermediate Period –Power of pharaohs decline and a period of weakness and turmoil set in ( B.C.) –Strong pharaohs begin to restore law and order ( B.C.) –Improve trade and transportation and new wealth leads to public works projects –canal dug from Nile to the Red Sea –huge dikes built to channel water for irrigation of fields –drained swamps of lower Egypt to make more farmland –Hyksos (Asian nomads) sweep into Egypt on chariots and take over ( B.C.)

The Hyksos

The New Kingdom ( B.C.) –The Hyksos are overthrown by strong Egyptian leaders who begin to create an Egyptian empire –Army is developed which use bronze weapons, chariots, archers, and infantry –Hatshepsut attempts to encourage trade and build wealth –Thutmose III (Hatshepsut’s stepson) takes over and wages war to extend the empire into Nubia to the south of Egypt –While conquering Syria and Palestine Egypt fought the Hittites -Battle of Kadesh: two armies fight till standstill -Ramses II and the Hittite king make treaty -Ramses II is a powerful ruler who builds monuments to himself, has 150 children, live to be 99 years old –Valley of the Kings near Thebes is covered with large pyramids and monuments to the pharaohs, and despite their massive size, they were not as skillfully built as those from the First Kingdom

Pyramids at Giza

Egypt after the New Kingdom: The Empire Declines Invasions by land and sea “People of the Sea” (possibly Philistines) attack Egypt and Hittites Libyans from the west cross the desert and establish rule over Egypt ( B.C.) The Kushites of Nubia Nubia was ruled by Egypt from B.C. Kushites adopted Egyptian culture (language, religion, hieroglyphics, etc.) 751 B.C. Piankhi (Kushite) takes over Egypt from Libyans) and restores Egypt’s glory Assyrians (from Southwest Asia) conquer Egypt and the Kushites, who establish their kingdom at Meroë and flourish until they are defeated by Aksum