Government Philosophers Aristotle 336 BC Cicero 81 BC Hobbes Locke Montesquieu Rousseau

Aristotle Identified total of 6 constitutions : 3 right and 3 wrong Rulers Right Wrong One kingship tyranny Few aristocracy oligarchy Many polity democracy

Right Constitutions Kingship- act quickly and decisively in emergencies, should not be absolute but limited by the law. Aristocracy- small group of men chosen because they are the best Polity- blend of democracy and oligarchy – balance out two wrong forms

Wrong Constitutions Tyranny- corrupt form of kingship – use force of oppress all others – only interested in their own interests Oligarchy- rules for the benefit of the rich Democracy- poor always outnumber the rich

Best Constitution Decided on a balanced one based on the Greek principle that the extremes in life should be avoided in favor of the moderate middle. Mixing two extreme “wrong” constitutions, oligarchy and democracy would make a “right”. Polity would best fit the needs of the majority.

Cicero Admired the Roman Republic-satisfied the political demands of two major groups of citizens. The old aristocratic families and their upper-class allies and the second group included everyone else. Together they made up the people. Elaborate system of checks and balances to prevent one man or class from controlling the government. Senate set government polices and debated proposes laws. When the Senate passed legislation, a people’s assembly had to approve it before it became law. One more check 12 elected tribunals represented the interests of the commoners. The tribunes could propose laws before the Senate and veto any of its actions.

Cicero “Law is the highest reason.” Thus natural law is the guide for right and wrong in human affairs. Since reason “is certainly common to us all, the law in nature is eternal and unchangeable, binding at all times upon all peoples.” Cicero warned that it was “never morally right” for humans to make laws that violate natural law. Without laws, there can be no state or government. More importantly there must be equality under the law with no special exceptions. Laws are not enough for just state. There must also be liberty. “But if liberty is not equally enjoyed by all citizens, it is not liberty at all”. Liberty can not exist unless “the people have the supreme power” in government. The ideal form of government upheld natural laws, established justice, and ensured liberty. Like Aristotle he identified 3 right and 3 wrong forms of government. (And agreed with him) Ideal gov’t “is formed by an equal balancing and blending” of monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy. In this mixed state royalty, the best men and the common people all should have a role.

Hobbes Leviathan – described the “state of nature” where all individuals were naturally equal. All were free to do what he or she needed to survive. As a result, everyone suffered from continued fear and danger of violent death and the life of man was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”. Hobbes asserted that the people agreed among themselves to “lay down” their natural rights of equality and freedom and give absolute power to a sovereign. This sovereign might be a person or a group. The sovereign would make and enforce the laws to secure a peaceful society, making life, liberty, and property possible. Hobbes called this agreement the “social contract”. Hobbes believed that a government headed by a king was the best form that the sovereign could take. Placing all power in the hands of a king would mean more resolute and consistent exercise of political authority. Hobbes believed that the social contract was an agreement only among the people and not between them and their king. Once the people had given absolute power to the king they had no right to revolt against him.

Locke 1690 Two Treatises of Government Locke generally agreed with Hobbes about the brutality of the state of nature which required a social contract to assure peace. Disagreed with Hobbes on 2 major points: 1. Locke argued that natural rights such as life, liberty and property existed in the state of nature and could never be taken away or even voluntarily given up. These rights were unalienable. 2. Locke believed the social contract WAS an agreement not just among people but between the people and their leader.

Locke According to Locke, the natural rights of people limited the power of the king. The king did not hold absolute power as Hobbes said, but acted only to enforce and protect the natural rights of the people. If the leader violated these rights, the social contract was broken, and the people had the right to revolt and establish a new government. Locke spoke out for freedom of thought, speech and religion, he believed property to be the most important natural right. Government was needed to promote the “public good” that is to protect property and encourage commerce and little else. “Govern lightly”. Liked representative gov’t, but wanted reps to be only men of property and business. Only adult male property owners should have the right to vote. The property less masses should not participate since they are unfit.

Montesquieu 1748 The Spirit of the Laws Unlike Hobbes and Locke, Montesquieu believed that in the state of nature individuals were so fearful that they avoided violence and war. They need for food caused timid humans to associate with others and seek to live in society. “As soon as man enters into a state of society he loses the sense of his weakness, equality ceases, and then commences the state of war”. Did not identify a social contract, be said that the state of war among people and nations led to human laws and government. Main purpose of government is to maintain law and order, political liberty, and the property. Opposed absolute monarchy, favored a separation and balance of powers. Best form of government was one in which the legislative, executive, and judicial powers were separate and kept each other in check to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful. By uniting these powers in one person would lead to despotism.

Rousseau 1762 The Social Contract “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains”. People born into state of nature and were free, equal, peaceful and happy When people began to claim ownership of property, inequality, murder, and war resulted. R believed the powerful rich stole the land belonging to everyone else and fooled the common people into accepting them as rulers. He concluded that the social contract was not a willing agreement as H, L, and M believed, but a fraud against the people committed by the rich. Agreed with Locke that people should never to forced to give up their natural rights to a king. The problem in the state of nature was to find a way to protect everyone’s life, liberty and property while each person remained free. R solution- people enter into a social contract – they would give up all their rights not to a king, but to the whole community, all the people. He called all the people the sovereign – the people exercised their “general will” to make laws for the “public good.’ In R’s democracy anyone who disobeyed the general will, will be forced to be free. He believed that citizens must obey the laws or be forced to do so as long as they remain a resident of the state. Civil state- where security, justice, liberty and property are protected and enjoyed by all.

Rousseau All political power must reside with the people, exercising their free will. There can be no separation of powers. The people meeting together, will deliberate individually on laws and then by majority vote find the general will. General will later embodied in the words “We the people”.