Sara Hsu

 Essential part of reform in China, India and Japan  Process by which people settle in cities  Creating institutions to satisfy needs of all urban residents has presented challenge  Strong pressure to migrate in China/India  Positive impacts such as agglomeration  Negative impacts such as higher costs of living, denser living spaces, pollution

 Urbanized share of the population grew from 11% in 1867 to 32% by 1932  Urban areas unplanned before WWI  Industrial urbanization  Central Tokyo became base of industrial production that branched outward  Mainly agrarian until 1920  Urban planning began after 1919 w/ City Planning and Land Readjustment Act

 Well-planned infrastructure starting in 1930s, downtowns had taller buildings  Munitions-producing cities built in 1940s  Towns destroyed during WWII and urban planning used for reconstruction  1960s urbanization of suburban areas was unsuccessful  Residents in cities of more than people rose from 12% in 1920 to more than 50% by In 1970, there were 103 cities and metropolitan areas with populations of more than

 Urbanization and migration linked due to hukou which controls access to cities  China has lower level of urbanization  Urbanization almost halted under Mao, slow urbanization in 1980s  Urbanization sped up in 1990s along w/ industrialization  Current reform agenda seeks to increase urban population

 Environmental degradation has resulted from rapid urbanization  Rural residents who lost land from urbanization became urban unemployed  Agglomeration effects are important in the services sector, which China is promoting  Increased consumption complements urbanization process

 Pace of urbanization slower than that in China, but has been steady  Population pressures on urban infrastructure and employment  Largest cities gaining in population and physical size, economically advanced states have higher levels of urbanization  Migrants are temporary urban dwellers due to lack of infrastructure

 Cities with population of over 10 million people  Megacities located along the coast, in Beijing, Shanghai, on the Shandong peninsula, and increasingly in the Greater Guangzhou region, Greater Shenyang, and Shenzhen.  New megacities are emerging inland, w/ younger population

 Shanghai on east coast, Special City from 1927, rapid development, fast population growth after reform  Beijing in northeast, suffers from extreme air pollution and ghetto-like dwellings  Shandong in, northeast industrial development, working to expand public services to all urban residents

 Severe sanitation, population, and infrastructure issues  Slums in Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata  Mumbai is largest city  Delhi was planned starting in 1957 but still faces problems w/ housing  Kolkata near coast, prone to flooding w/ insufficient drainage and sewer system

 Tokyo and Osaka strongly impacted by industrialization process  Tokyo was modernized by 1910 w/ railways, trams, water supply, and parks and expanded by 1920 so that heavy industry located to suburban areas  Osaka was industrialized in 1880s as major spinning city, grew in 1900s as industrialization took root

 Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem: a country will export goods that use the country’s abundant factors  Factor Price Equalization Theorem: free trade in goods equalizes the prices of factors over trading countries.  Harris-Todaro Model: decision to migrate based on urban expected income  Borjas model of internal migration: migration occurs so people can match skills

 Hukou to establish identity and citizenship originated in fifties and persists today, restricting migration  Migration accelerated in nineties and continues through today  Migrants were laid off from jobs so local urban laid-off workers could be hired  Push from rural areas; pull from urban areas

 Large scale rural to urban migration  Younger, male, with low education- most have 9 years of schooling or less  Difficult lives-instability, dangerous working conditions, vulnerable  Low levels of happiness-cannot afford proper housing, often lack toilet

 Began even before reform started  Migration is far lower in India than China  Seasonal work is available in both agriculture and manufacturing.  Most seasonal migrants work in cultivation, brick kilns, construction sites, fish processing, and quarries, while others work in urban informal manufacturing or services sectors

 Migration occurs for push and pull factors  Those in upper castes with higher education migrate  Migration of disadvantaged groups to informal sector

 Large amounts of rural to urban migration occurred after 1930  Changing nature of manufacturing activity from piecework in the home to factories  Agricultural pop. declined after 1930  Decision to migrate was family one  Migration in 1940s and 1950s was part of industrialization process  By late 1970s, migration betw urban and non-urban areas was balanced

 Different characteristics of urbanization and migration in China, Japan and India  Migration mainly for economic reasons- push and pull factors  Leads to growth of megacities