A dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors. (Matsumoto, 2004)

 There are numerous accepted definitions.  Culture is complex because it includes all of human life and its artifacts.  It changes.  There are political aspects to definitions.  Definitions reflect our assumptions, theoretical orientations, and interests.

 Definitions tend to refer to “surface culture” which is what can be seen.  Examples: food, eating habits, clothing, rituals, communication patterns, religion.

 According to Kuschel (2004), culture cannot be seen. What we see are the manifestations of culture.  Because true “culture” cannot be seen, it should never be used as an explanation for behavior. Instead, we should ask questions like how specific factors in a culture lead to specific types of behavior.

 Behavior patterns that are typical of certain groups and passed down through the generations by observational learning.

 How marriage partners are chosen  Attitudes toward alcohol consumption  Acceptance of techniques for punishing children

LO: Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic” concepts (SAQ)

Emic and etic refer to two different kinds of approaches concerning human behavior. In particular, they are used at the SLOA to refer to kinds of fieldwork done and viewpoints obtained.

Looks at universal rules for behavior across cultures. Attempts to be culturally neutral.  In other words, one behavior, like courting, is studied across many cultures.

 The objects (eg. aggression, school attendance) and standards of comparison (scale) are equivalent across cultures.  Comparisons do not explain phenomenon, but examine cultural influences that lead to certain behavior or thinking patterns.

 Subjects are assumed to have certain qualities based on their membership in a culture. The reality is that these qualities/traits may or may not exist in that particular subject.

Looks at behaviors that are culturally specific.  In other words, the focus is on behaviors, like genital mutilation, that are only seen in one culture.

 Assumption that human behavior cannot be separated from its cultural context.  Behavior, therefore, is not determined by causes, but by reasons.  This approach emphasizes self-determination and self-reflection.  Explores psychological issues from the perspective of researchers from the culture being studied.

 Since it relies on the self-reports and self- assessments of the subjects, there are two dangers:  Systematic Bias: when individuals misrepresent or misinterpret their own behavior.  Arbitrariness: the subjective status of scientific knowledge. In other words, cultural relativism limits real knowledge.

 Interview studies comparing emic delineations of depressive symptoms from Pakistanis living in UK with existing predominant etic descriptions used by Western psychiatrists treating them. This study was a result of concerns over how Pakastani women were diagnosed and treated for mental illness.

 1 st & 2 nd generation Pakistani women living in poor UK.  Women were interviewed in front of families, specifically husbands.  Only 7 families allowed researchers to record the interviews.  Difficulty in translating the symptoms because no direct translation.

 Emic descriptions centered on physical symptoms.  Belief that families should take care of mentally ill, not hospitals.  35% believed in faith healers.  25% believed in supernatural causes.