Reinforcement B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments The Skinner box The Skinner box Food = reinforcement Food = reinforcement

Superstitious Behavior Can be acquired through association of a response or reinforcement Can be acquired through association of a response or reinforcement Baseball players/athletes Baseball players/athletes Commonly held superstitions- They may have started through operant conditioning; some incident in the past may have accidentally reinforced these behaviors. Commonly held superstitions- They may have started through operant conditioning; some incident in the past may have accidentally reinforced these behaviors.

Terms Related to Operant Conditioning Discriminative stimuli Discriminative stimuli Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Discriminative Stimuli A cue that signals some type of reinforcement is possible if the subject makes a particular response : A worker usually will only ask for a raise when his or her boss is in a good mood. Facial cues are prime examples of discriminative stimuli. A real-life example: A worker usually will only ask for a raise when his or her boss is in a good mood. Facial cues are prime examples of discriminative stimuli.

Positive Reinforcement Increases the chance that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way Examples: stimuli that offer positive reinforcement include food, money, gifts, and even love or social approval. Examples: stimuli that offer positive reinforcement include food, money, gifts, and even love or social approval.

Negative Reinforcement Involves removing an unpleasant stimulus in order to increase the chance that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way Involves removing an unpleasant stimulus in order to increase the chance that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way Examples: babies crying. Examples: babies crying.

Negative Reinforcement : babies cry in order to let their caregivers know when they are wet, tired, cold, or hungry. If a caregiver responds to the crying and gives the baby what it wants, then the baby has received positive reinforcement and will continue to cry whenever they require attention. On the other hand, the baby’s crying works as a negative reinforcement for the caregiver. The caregiver finds the crying unpleasant and will try to do something that will make the baby stop. A two-way street: babies cry in order to let their caregivers know when they are wet, tired, cold, or hungry. If a caregiver responds to the crying and gives the baby what it wants, then the baby has received positive reinforcement and will continue to cry whenever they require attention. On the other hand, the baby’s crying works as a negative reinforcement for the caregiver. The caregiver finds the crying unpleasant and will try to do something that will make the baby stop.

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule Fixed-interval schedule Fixed-interval schedule Variable-interval schedule Variable-interval schedule

Fixed-Ratio A set number of correct responses is needed before the reward can be obtained A set number of correct responses is needed before the reward can be obtained

Variable-Ratio Rewards come after an unpredictable number of responses Rewards come after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval A specific amount of time must pass before a response can produce a reward Ex: Often students procrastinate and put off studying until the night before the exam, then they study at a feverish pace. After the test is over, they return to their lax study habits, picking up the pace only when the next exam looms.

Variable-Interval Changing amounts of time elapse before a response will produce reinforcement Changing amounts of time elapse before a response will produce reinforcement you try to reach a friend on the phone who has no call-waiting. For example: you try to reach a friend on the phone who has no call-waiting.

Response Chain Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence Each reaction produces the signal for the next Learning to swim successfully is an example of chaining: you must kick, use specific arm movements, and breathe all in a particular rhythm or sequence. Learning to swim successfully is an example of chaining: you must kick, use specific arm movements, and breathe all in a particular rhythm or sequence.

Shaping A technique in which a desired behavior is molded first by rewarding any act similar to that behavior, then requiring closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward A real-life example: Trainers sometimes use shaping to teach animals how to perform tricks. A real-life example: Trainers sometimes use shaping to teach animals how to perform tricks.

Social Learning A form of learning in which an animal or person observes and imitates the behavior of others A form of learning in which an animal or person observes and imitates the behavior of others Albert Bandura Albert Bandura

Bandura’s Experiment Bobo doll, the “model” Bobo doll, the “model” 2 types of social learning: cognitive, modeling 2 types of social learning: cognitive, modeling

Cognitive Learning A form of altering behavior that involves “mental processes” A form of altering behavior that involves “mental processes” It may result from imitation or observation It may result from imitation or observation Cognitive map/latent learning Cognitive map/latent learning

Learned Helplessness A condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail A condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail A major cause of depression A major cause of depression Latent learning and learned helplessness are both forms of cognitive learning Latent learning and learned helplessness are both forms of cognitive learning

Learned Helplessness If rewards come without any effort, a person never learns to work. If failure comes no matter how hard someone works, a person sometimes “gives up.” This is called “learned helplessness.” If rewards come without any effort, a person never learns to work. If failure comes no matter how hard someone works, a person sometimes “gives up.” This is called “learned helplessness.”

Elements of Learned Helplessness Stability- a person’s belief that helplessness has resulted from a permanent characteristic. Stability- a person’s belief that helplessness has resulted from a permanent characteristic. Globality- “I’m just dumb” Globality- “I’m just dumb” Internality Internality

Modeling Learning by imitating others Learning by imitating others Observational learning Observational learning watching someone else engage in a dangerous or threatening activity without being punished Disinhibition- watching someone else engage in a dangerous or threatening activity without being punished

Applications of Observational Learning Children see television as a “model” Children see television as a “model” Violence on television/violence in society Violence on television/violence in society Television and ADD Television and ADD

Mediascope National Television Violence Study Viewers learn to behave violently Viewers learn to behave violently They become more desensitized to violence They become more desensitized to violence They become more fearful of being attacked They become more fearful of being attacked

Study (cont.) Perpetrators go unpunished in 73% of all violent crimes depicted on television Perpetrators go unpunished in 73% of all violent crimes depicted on television About half of the time, television depicts victims of violence as unharmed and/or showing no pain About half of the time, television depicts victims of violence as unharmed and/or showing no pain 25% of violent scenes involve handguns 25% of violent scenes involve handguns Only 4% of violent programs incorporate nonviolent themes as well Only 4% of violent programs incorporate nonviolent themes as well Less than 3% of violent scenes feature close-ups, and 15% show no blood Less than 3% of violent scenes feature close-ups, and 15% show no blood

Behavior Modification Systematic application of learning principles used to change actions and feelings Systematic application of learning principles used to change actions and feelings Helpful in overcoming fears Helpful in overcoming fears Behavioral contracts Behavioral contracts