Literature and Databases of the Marine Sciences, IODE OceanTeacher Academy Course, Oostende, Belgium, 26-30, 2010 April Linda Pikula, NOAA

Timeline of Earth Science 2296 B.C. -

DateEventBooks, etc B.C.E. The Chinese record the earliest comet sighting 2000 B.C.E. Chinese discover magnetic attraction B.C.E. Greek philosophers develop a geocentric cosmology that places a perfectly spherical Earth at the center of a spherical universe with other planets orbiting the Earth 334 B.C.E. Aristotle ( ) writes Meteorologica, the first work on the atmospheric science. Includes his studeis on comets, shooting stars, and rainbows. Most of the meteorology is incorrect, but is accepted as correct until the 15 th century Meteorologia 330 B.C.E.Greek geographer and explorer Pytheas proposes that tides are caused by the Moon. His observation of spring tides occurring during a new or full Moon led him to conclude that the Moon was connected to the height of the tides 240 B.C.EGreek astronomer Eratosthenes of Cyrene becomes the first to accurately measure the circumference of the Earth A.D. 132 Chinese astronomer royal, Zhang Heng invents the first seismograph. A case of 8 bronze dragons’ heads around the top- each dragon held a bronze ball in its mouth. When an earthquake began, the ball sitting in the opposite direction of the earthquake source would fall into the mouth of a bronze toad at the bottom of the case, making a loud ring. In this way the direction of the earthquake could be determined 140 Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy defines the universe mathematically using data collected by the Babylonians to create mathematical models for the positions of the planets and predictions of future positions.

DateEventBook, etc. 1517Italian physician Fracastoro describes ancient organism remains,now called fossils. Italian artist/inventor Leonardo da Vinci concludes that fossils are the remains of animals that had once been alive. Saxon,(now Germany) Georgius Agricoloa apples the term fossil to any nonliving thing unearthed in his book On the Nature of Fossils 1543Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus writes The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, which proposes a heliocentric view of the solar system The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres 1608Dutch optician Hans Lippershey is first person to apply for telescope patent. Not known who invented it. Italian, Galileo Galilei often credited, but he simply improved the design. 1609German astronomer,physicist Joahnnes Kepler proposes first laws of planetary motion. Planets have elliptical orbit around the sun. 1611Italian Galileo and others discover sunspots. 1643Torricelli, Italian mathematician creates the first mercury barometer 1703First modern seismograph invented by French, Paul Gabriel de Hatefeuille

Timeline of Earth Sciences – 1800’s DateEventBooks, etc. 1801Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi first person to discover an asteroid, Ceres 1804French chemist J.L. Gay-Lussac and physicist Jean Biot make the first manned balloon exploration of the atmosphere. Meteorological measurements taken to 3 mile height. Gay-Lussac makes a 2 nd flight alone to 4.2 miles and determines that the composition of the air does not change with height 1837Swiss- born U.S. naturalist and glaciologist Jean L. Agassiz proposes that ice covered much of Earth in the “ice ages” 1840U.S. Navy lieutenant/oceanographer Matthew Fontaine Maury begins first organized collection of information about ocean winds and currents. Creates pilot charts that shorten time for ships to cross the oceans Pilot Charts, Physical Geography of the Sea 1856U.S. meteorologist William Ferrel proposes general circulation of atmosphere divides into 6 separate circulation cells. This explains the presence of trade winds in bands between the equator and 30 degrees latitude and generally west to east movement of storms in mid-latitudes between 30 – 60 degrees

Timeline of Earth Sciences – DateEventBooks,et 1904Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes sets out mathematical basis for meteorology 1906British seismologist Richard Oldham discovers the compressional waves of earthquakes arrive on opposite side of Earth later than expected when compared to arrival times at other points on the surface. Deduces that Earth’s core is much denser that its mantle, since waves travel more slowly through denser material 1907U.S. radiochemist Bertram Boltwood first uses uranium to date rocks. Investigated the role of radioactive decay of uranium 1912German meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred Wegener proposes his theory of continental drift Writing? 1920Norwegian Vilhelm Bjerknes and son Jacob with others develop their theory of polar fronts. Show that the atmosphere is divided into distinct air masses-frontal analysis is slowly introduced and adopted worldwide 1927Belgian priest/astronomer Georges Lemaitre proposes big bang theory of universe. U.S. astronomer Edwin Hubble supports this through evidence and observations that the galaxies are moving apart. 1935U.S. seismologist Charles Richter develops his scale of earthquake strength. 1946U.S. Vincent Schaefer at General Electric discovers dry ice causes supercooled water to turn to snow-lead to weather modification techniques for clearing fog, increasing rainfall and preventing damage from hail.

Timeline of Earth Sciences 1950-s DateEventBooks, etc. 1950U.S. astronomer Fred Whipple proposes that comets are composed of ice, dust, dry ice, methane and ammonia-known as “dirty snowball” theory. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort proposes that comets originate in a sphere that contains the ingredients to create them- comet nursery is now know as the Oort Cloud First operational weather maps created by numerical weather prediction techniques on a computer produced Swedish Meteorological and Hydrographic Institute Stockholm, Sweden and Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit, U.S. Suitland, Maryland (NOAA now) Computer generated Weather Maps 1957Soviet Union launches first spacecraft and artificial satellite Sputnik, begins the space age International geophysical Year (IGY) is launched in July 1957 as 18 months devoted to observing geophysical phenomena and taking measurements of Earth and atmosphere. 67 nations share information and work together on project

Timeline of Earth Science ’s DateEventBooks,etc 1961Formally the IODE started out as a Working Group on Oceanographic Data Exchange which was created by the First IOC Assembly (19-27 October 1961) During the past 40 years, IOC Member States have established over 60 oceanographic data centres in as many countries. This network has been able to collect, control the quality of, and archive millions of ocean observations, and makes these available to Member States. 1962U.S Harry Hess proposes seafloor spreading as mechanism to explain presence of mid-ocean ridges. Plate tectonic s soon becomes fundamental theory underlying all geology 1965U.S astrophysicist Arno Penzias and physicist Robert Wilson discover radio waves left over from Big Bang. Discovery provides evidence supporting idea of steadily expanding universe 1969U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become first humans to land on the moon 1974Molina and Rowland warm of threat of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to the stratospheric ozone layer. Within 4 years U.S. bans presence of CFCs in aerosol cans 1975U.S. launches first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) U.S. has two GOES satellites send back images of U.S. and adjacent ocean waters to meteorologists

Timeline of Earth Sciences DateEvent 1990First optical telescope in space U.S. Hubble Space Telescope placed into orbit and beams back images from far in the universe 1994Comet fragments Shoemaker-Levy 9 strike planet Jupiter. First time astronomers able to predict a comet would strike another planet and to watch the collision 1997Kyoto Protocol commits industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. U.S. declines to sign 2000Ice cores from Himalayan glacier confirm that the decade was warmest in last 1,000 years 2001Scientists suggest Pluto is not a planet, but a large piece of ice, other scientists disagree 2003Team of astronomers discover a planet 2x as big as Jupiter orbiting a star in the constellation Puppis. Called proof of existence of another solar system in the universe

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of Surface Oceanography Earliest times to 1873 Era of Deep-Sea Exploration Era of National Systematic and national Surveys Era of New Methods Era of International Cooperation Era of Satellite Oceanography Era of Earth System Science 1995-

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of Surface OceanographyCharacterized by systematic collection of mariners observations of winds, currents, waves, temperature, as observsed from the decks of sailing ships Examples: Halley’s Charts of Trade Winds Franklins map of the Gulf Stream Matthew Fontaine Maury’s Physical Geography for the Sea

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of Deep-Sea Exploration Characterized by wide ranging oceanographic expeditions to survey surface and subsurface conditions near colonial claims Major Examples: Challenger Expedition Gazelle Expedition Fram (Norway) Expedition

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of National Systematic and national Surveys Characterized by detailed surveys of colonial areas Examples: Meteor surveys of Atlantic Discovery Expeditions

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of New Methods Long surveys using new instruments. Examples Seismic surveys of the Atlantic by VemaLeading to Heezen’s Maps of the Sea-Floor Cruises of the R/V Atlantis out of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of International Cooperation Multi-national surveys of oceans and studies of oceanic processes Examples: Atlantic Polar Front Program NORPAC Cruises International Geophysical Year Cruises International Decade of Ocean Exploration Produced multi-ship studies of oceanic processes MODE,POLYMODE,NORPAX, JASIN

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of Satellite Oceanography Characterized by global surveys of oceanic processes from space Examples: Seasat NOAA 6-10 NIMBUS-7 Geosat Topex/Poseidon ERS-1

Eras of Oceanographic Exploration Era of Earth System Science 1995-Global studies of the interaction of biological, chemical and physical processes in the ocean and atmosphere and on land using in situ and space data in numerical modes Examples World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) TOPEX/Poseidon Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE) SeaWifs Jason QuikScat Aqua Terra

Ocean Exploration Timeline

History of Ocean Exploration B.C. Egyptians develop sailing vessels. These were probably used only in the eastern Mediterranean near the mouth of the Nile River. 600 B.C. Phoenicians develop sea routes around the entire Mediterranean and into the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. They made it all the way around Africa near 590 B.C. Phoenicians also reached England by sailing along the western European coast. They were trying to find sources of tin to use in producing bronze. Although they understood celestial navigation, they probably stayed within sight of land whenever possible B.C. Greeks develop trade routes throughout the Mediterranean. They used the length of the day (corrected for the time of the year) to estimate latitude.

History of Ocean Exploration B.C. Herodotus (Greek) publishes an accurate map of the Mediterranean region (Fig. 1-2 in your book). 325 B.C. Pytheas, a Greek astronomer and geographer, sailed north out of the Mediterranean, reaching England and possibly even Iceland and Norway. He also developed the use of sightings on the North Star to determine latitude and figured out that tides were related to phases of the moon. 200 B.C. Eratosthenes, a Greek determines the circumference of the Earth using angles of shadows in Syene and Alexandria. His estimate was about 40,000 k.m.; the real value is 40,032 k.m.

History of Ocean Exploration A.D. Ptolemy produces a map of the Roman world, including lines of latitude and longitude, the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa and the surrounding oceans. 600 A.D. Europeans, having lost access to Greek and Roman texts, have forgotten much of what they knew about the world and ocean navigation A.D. Vikings explore and colonize Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland (Canada) using the North Star to determine latitude.

History of Ocean Exploration (4) A.D. Chinese send seven voyages in 317 huge technologically advanced ships with 37,000 crew. These missions were not for conquest, religion, or trade, but instead were designed to extend Chinese influence and impress their neighbor states. Economic pressures ended the expensive voyages after a short time, and China isolated itself A.D. Ptolemy's map of the oceans is published once more after European crusades capture Roman libraries from Arab peoples A.D. Vasco da Gama sails around Africa from Portugal; reaches India to establish trade routes A.D. Ferdinand Magellan's ships circumnavigate the world (although Magellan died partway there).

History of Ocean Exploration A.D. James Cook Great Britain explores the southern parts of the oceans looking for the southern continent (Antarctica). He was the first to use a chronometer (very accurate clock) to determine longitude A.D. Charles Darwin (Great Britain ) sails on the Beagle, exploring the Galapagos and many other areas. It is this work which led him to develop the concept of natural selection and evolution A.D. The H.M.S. Challenger (Great Britain ) traveled around the world on a purely scientific mission, taking sediment samples, water samples, soundings, and collecting many biological specimens A.D. The Meteor, a German vessel, sails around the Atlantic, taking detailed echo sounding measurements that reveal much new information about the structure and shape of the ocean floor A.D.-present International scientific deep-sea drilling programs (DSDP, ODP, and IODP) run drilling cruises throughout the world's oceans, creating a huge repository of sediment cores, measurements, and information.

Egyptians Perhaps “Sounding Poles” Ancient sytle

The legend of St. Brendan – 1000 A.D. Same pole as Egyptians

Martin Waldseemuller World Map of 1507 –An Inspired Guess, or Was It Clandestine Knowledge That There Was a Pacific Ocean?

James Cook Great Britain Voyages Village of Kaawaloa illustration Where Captain Cook was killed

Voyage of the Beagle - Darwin The Voyage of the Beagle is a title commonly given to the book written by Charles Darwin and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. The title refers to the second survey expedition of the ship HMS Beagle, which set sail from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of captain Robert FitzRoy

NOAA Publication Charles Darwin (Darwin Bibliography - darwinbib.pdf darwinbib.pdf

HMS Challenger Sketches of Voyages around the World Drawing Book Many of the sketches deal with landfall scenes

HMS Challenger –What we get The following slide shows the idea of mermaids helping with the dredging. “After the dredge was put over and lowered to the bottom, where it was allowed to remain for some hours, the vessel slowly drifted onward. On hauling, in it was found turned upside- down and in a lovely tangle. ”

HMS Challenger Sketchbook- what we get and how we get it

Early research off the coast of Florida Dry Tortugas – Carnegie Institute year For twenty years the non- magnetic, wooden-hulled Carnegie sailed the oceans, including the iceberg- cluttered Arctic and Antarctic, carefully locating and finely measuring then unknown magnetic influences.

HMS Challenger at Table-Bay, Cape of Good Hope, November 28, 1873

Oceanographic Expeditions “For the oceanographers who were iron men sailing in wooden ships” This is a list and brief synopsis of notable expeditions that have in some way benefited the field of oceanography. It covers the years 1657 to 1933 from Seas, Maps, and Men: An Atlas-History of Man's Exploration of the Oceans (1962), a book edited by G. E. R. Deacon Edmund Halley ( ) A British astronomer, Halley (of comet fame) made probably the first primarily scientific voyage--to study the variation of the magnetic compass--sailing as far as 52 deg. S in the Atlantic Ocean in On a previous expedition to St. Helena, he made an important contribution to knowledge of the trade winds. He realized more than anyone the value of Newton's Principia and arranged for it to be printed at his own expense. James Cook ( ) On his three great voyages between 1768 and 1780, Cook carried naturalists in his ships and made careful observations of winds and currents. During the second voyage the Forster brothers measured subsurface temperatures and found a warm deep layer below the Antarctic surface water. Francois Peron ( ) A French naturalist and physicist, Peron accompanied a French circumnavigation of the globe in He was able to make only a few rather uncertain deep temperature measurements, but was much impressed by the importance of oceanic research and maintained that it had received too little attention.

Expeditions Ivan F. Kruzenstein ( ) He commanded a Russian circumnavigation in and was accompanied by Dr. J. C. Horner and with him made a number of deep sea temperature measurements in the tropical Pacific and the Sea of Okhotsk. William Scoresby ( ) An English whaler and scientist, Scoresby made many surface and deep observations in the seas around Spitsbergen and off the coast of Greenland between 1810 and Fabion G. von Bellingshausen ( ) He circumnavigated the Antarctic continent in , much of the voyage being south of 60 deg. S. He was bitterly disappointed in having to sail without a naturalist. "In this way our hopes of making discoveries in the field of natural history were dashed to the ground," he wrote. Nevertheless, he made many valuable observations, and his artist Paul Mikhailov painted a fine series of pictures of marine animals

Expeditions Otto von Kotzebue ( ) This Russian admiral made two circumnavigations in and , primarily for scientific purposes. Many deep-sea temperature observations were made, and Emil von Lenz, physicist on the second voyage, recognized that a surface flow of water from low to high latitudes must be supplied by a flow from the poles at great depths. Jean S. C. Dumont d'Urville ( ) A French admiral, he made three circumnavigations in , , and He made many deep-sea temperature observations, but because of the effect of pressure on the thermometers he concluded that in the open oceans the temperature of the water below about 500 fathoms was uniform at nearly 4.4 deg. C. He wrongly concluded that somewhere between 40 deg. S and 60 deg. S, ocean water was at a uniform temperature of 4.4 deg. C from the surface to the bottom. Sir James Clark Ross ( ) He made the first extensive series of deep sea soundings during his voyage to the Southern Seas in in H. M. S. Erebus and Terror. He made comprehensive studies of the Earth's magnetism, many deep-sea temperature measurements and extensive biological collections. Dr. J. D. Hooker, who went on the voyage as surgeon-naturalist, published his well-known Botany of the Antarctic, voyage of the Erebus and Terror. Ross also studied the effect of variations of atmospheric pressure on sea level. He had the same ideas as Dumont d'Urville about temperature of the deep water. Dredgings were made at depths down to 400 fathoms but the collections were subsequently neglected and lost to science.Dumont d'Urville

Expeditions Charles Wilkes ( ) He commanded six ships taking part in the U.S. expedition of Although the scientific staff, under the direction of the famous naturalist J. D. Dana, did not go south of Sydney, Australia, extensive natural history collections were made. Scientifically the expedition is best known for Dana's description of Crustacea. What must have been an enormous collection of fishes was never properly reported on. Robert Fitzroy ( ) This British admiral commanded the Beagle during her famous voyages of Charles Darwin, who sailed in her from , added much to our knowledge of natural history, especially on the structure and origin of coral reefs and islands. Only two sets of temperature observations were made. Matthew F. Maury ( ) An officer in the United States Navy, he sailed around the world and his sea experience taught him the critical need to increase the efficiency of shipping through better navigation and safety at sea. He was successful in convincing the world of the value of more systematic study and charting of winds and currents. He also produced the first bathymetric chart of the North Atlantic Current.

Expeditions Edward Forbes ( ) He studied the fauna of the Aegean Sea and did much to stimulate interest in marine biology, partly, perhaps, by promoting an active study of depths greater than 300 fathoms, below which he believed that animal life ceased to exist. William B. Carpenter ( ) Sir Charles Wyville Thomson ( ) Gwyn Jeffreys ( ) They made dredging expeditions in H.M.S. Lightning, Porcupine, and Shearwater in the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. They found many new species of animals and made enough temperature observations to show that there was an active circulation of the water below the surface. They dredged at depths down to 2000 fathoms. H. M. S. Challenger ( ) This research ship carried five scientists, under the direction of Wyville Thomson, and made extensive biological, chemical, geological and physical observations, mainly in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and across the Indian Ocean south of 40 deg. S. The extensive biological collections, together with soundings, bottom samples, and chemical and physical observations, presented the first broad view of the character of the oceans. The Meteor( )

Class: Expeditions from your own country?

Underwater Explorations Timeline

Arctic Exploration Timeline

NOAA’s Collection of Rare 19 th Century Oceanography Books The Depths of the Sea /welcome.html

NOAA Photo Library Voyage to Inner Space

NOAA Photo Library History of Oceanography

NOAA Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey: Blake

NOAA Ocean Explorer

Documenting Science through Journals

Gutenberg to Gates: Print and Modern Science

Exploring your Collections?

Bibliography Agassiz, Alexander. Three cruises of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. from Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, London, Challenger Sketchbook B. Shephard’s Sketchbook of the H.M.S. Challenger Expedition Prepared and edited for publication by Harris B. Stewart, Jr. and J. Welles Henderson. Published by Philadelphia Maritime Museum, Bibliographie Geologique du Congo Bele et du Ruanda-Urundi v Musee Royal du Congo Belge Tervuren (Belgique) Publie avec le concours de la commission de geologie du ministere des colonies. The edge of an unfamiliar world : a history of Oceanography by Susan Schlee, NY,NY, 1973 Jones, Megan. 100 Excellent websites for exploring the ocean. exploring-the-ocean-online/ exploring-the-ocean-online/ A student’s guide to earth science by Creative media applications. 4 v. Greenwood, London, 2004.

Bibliography: 2 Rozwadowski, H.M. and Van Keuren, D. ed. The machine in Neptune’s Garden. Science History, Sagamore, Ma Wood, D.N. et al. ed. Information sources in the earth sciences, 2 nd ed. Bowker, NY, Deacon, Margaret. Scientists and the sea , a study of marine science. Academic, NY, NOAA 200 th Collections: Rare Books me.html Young, David. Acquiring the Freidrich Tippman Collection: documenting science through journals.

Bibliography 3 Gutenberg to Gates: exhibit at the Springfield Library 2000: print and modern science. ml ml NOAA Photo Library : Voyage to inner space- exploring the sea with NOAA NOAA History a Science Odyssey: stories and tales from around the world NOAA Ocean Explorer

Bibliography 4 Stewart, Robert H. Introduction to physical oceanography: the historical setting. Dept. of Oceanography, Texas A & M, /contents.html /contents.html Polar Discovery: Arctic, the frozen ocean: timeline. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Underwater exploration timeline: University of Wisconsin ex.html ex.html

Bibliography 5 Baum, S. Notable oceanographic expeditions. Dept. of Oceanography, Texas A & M Univ., Deacon, G.E.R. Seas, Maps, and Men: An Atlas-History of Man's Exploration of the Oceans. Doubleday, NY Knight, J.D. Sea and sky: ocean exploration timeline 5000 B.C. – 1 B.C., c History of Ocean Exploration.