Can the state set decent standards for gender equality? Jill Rubery European Work and Employment Research Centre Manchester Business School University of Manchester

The importance of the public sector for gender equality Source of employment opportunities and source of support services for employment integration (only effective alternative to female domestic labour) Potential for protection in pay and employment practices from discrimination/ from organisation of labour market around male lifecourse Space for alternative social values- social choice over how to value care work, for example

EmploymentWorking Conditions Active Promotion of Gender Equality Employment quantity Concentration of women’s employment Work-life balance options to facilitate employment continuity Childcare to facilitate labour market participation Employment quality Concentration of women graduates Pay and pension premiums especially for lower skilled Specific duties and policies or more effective implementation of national policies Gender equality and the public sector

FranceGermanyHungarySwedenUK Share of the public sector: in total employment in female employment in high-educated female employment in medium-educated female employment in low-educated female employment Share of women in total public sector employment Female employment in the public sector (NACE O, P, Q), 2010 Source: ELFS

France Right to work 50 per cent to 90 per cent time; r those on 50 per cent time e paid at 60 per cent. Also right to return to full-time work. No maternity leave ceiling unlike private sector. 12 days rather than 3 days sick child leave. Germany Right to work part-time for family reasons and to return to full-time work plus opportunities for flexible distribution of hours and for combining part-time work with the parental leave allowance. Hungary Civil servants have rights for more flexible working when children young but rarely used. Sweden Collective agreement in public sector provides top ups to parental leave pay; encourage take up by fathers. UK31% public sector compared to 11% private sector provide additional maternity leave pay, opportunities for job sharing and flexitime and requests for part-time or flexible hours granted more often. Work–life balance options in the public sector Source: adapted from Rubery (2013: table 2.6).

Public-private gaps in average pay in five countries, national data 2010 All males All females Male full- time Female full-time Female part-time France Germany Hungary 1.24 (CS) (CS) 0.90 Sweden UK Women in most but not all countries paid more in public than private sectors

Public and private sector pay for men and women relative to average male earnings in the private sector, 2010 But pay premium disappears if compare to male private sector pay

Interdecile - P90/P10 P10/Male private P50* P90/Male private P50* PublicPrivatePublicPrivatePublicPrivate France Male FT Female FT Female PT Sweden All UK Male FT Female FT Female PT All Inter-decile wage ratios in the public and private sectors, five countries, 2010 Lower paid fare better in public sector but part-timers also have better career opportunities

Lower secondary teachers’ statutory payFranceGermanyHungarySwedenUK As % pay of all full year workers with tertiary education Trends in real pay (2000=100) Trends in pay compared to GDP per capita No data Comparative levels of teachers’ pay Source : OECD (2011a, 2012). High degree of social choice over pay for professions- very low pay in feminised public professions in eastern Europe

Pensions in public compared to private sector FranceFinal salary compared to career average and high minimum entitlements but bonuses not included- contribution rates now harmonised. GermanyBetter occupational pensions and 100% coverage compared to 48% in private sector HungaryNo difference SwedenBetter than average top ups to statutory pensions UKExtensive defined benefits pensions- important as state pension low, private sector has closed schemes and women less covered in private sector Pensions in public compared to private sectors: importance depends on statutory system

Gender equality policy programmes and trade union equality campaigns in the public sector Source: adapted from Anxo et al. (2010) and Rubery (2013: box 2.1 and box 2.2). Childcare provision (under 3s) Public sector employer equality policies Public sector trade union equality campaigns Germany Low enrolment Affordable Specific Federal Equality Act -gender equality in recruitment and promotion Failed Ver.di campaign for gender sensitive job evaluation France Medium/high enrolment Affordable Gender parity in recruitment committee; 2008 equality charter - No trade union campaigns Hungary Low enrolment Affordable No employer initiativesNo trade union campaigns Sweden High enrolment Affordable Both public and private sectors must have a gender equality plan Some policies to reduce low pay r UK Medium enrolment Not affordable From 2007 gender duty in public sector. Voluntary equal pay audits (40 per cent of public bodies). Single pay spines based on gender sensitive job grading in local government, the NHS and universities.

GermanyFranceHungarySwedenUK Employment opportunities Quantity12132 Quality32333 Total for employment44465 Working conditions Work-life balance policies Pay and pensions32123 Total for working conditions Active promotion of gender equality Child care provision13131 Gender equality policies22132 Total for active promotion35263 Overall total score Variations in the contribution of the public sector to gender equality

Type of adjustmentCountry examples Cuts to public sector employment  Reduced employment  Higher work intensity Employment cuts in UK. Restrictions on vacancy filling in France. Change to contracts  Reduced job security  More internal differentiation ↑ non civil service in France- more women -lower benefits/ work life balance options. More outsourcing  Lower pay and conditions Increased outsourcing in UK, Germany and Sweden – lower pay in UK, Germany. Pay cuts/freezes/reforms  Wider gender pay gap  More managerial discretion Pay cuts in Hungary, pay freezes in UK, France, long term ↓ Germany and France, stability Sweden Changes to pensions  Wider gender gap Major changes to public sector pension cuts in UK Freezing promotion opportunities  Affects women’s careers Failure to appoint to higher grades in Germany Changes to working time  Reduced work life balance ↑in full-time working hours in Germany plus ↑ in part- time work. ↑unpaid overtime in France. Changes to equality policies  Reduced attention in public and private sectors End to equality reviews, equality duty likely in UK Public sector adjustment and implications for gender equality