1. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Chapter 9 Job design and work organization Source: Bettman/Corbis

2. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Operations strategy Design Improvement Planning and control Operations management Process design Supply network design Layout and flow Process technology Job design Product/service design Job design

3. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 The elements of job design

4. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 The objectives of job design Job design impacts on quality of working life quality speed dependability flexibility cost health and safety

5. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Some influences on job design and work organization Job design Team working Empowerment Behavioural approaches Flexible working Ergonomics Division of labourScientific management

6. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Division of labour Dividing the total task into smaller parts, each of which is accomplished by a single person or team Promotes faster learning Makes automation easier Ensures that non-productive work is reduced Advantages Leads to monotony Can result in physical injury Not particularly robust Can reduce flexibility Disadvantages

7. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Work study Method study Work measurement The systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed methods of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs The application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situations being reviewed in order to effect improvement

8. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified workers will achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day, provided they are motivated to apply themselves to their work. Source: Getty Images/Photographers Choice

9. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 A qualified worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, intelligence, skill, education and knowledge to perform the task to satisfactory standards of safety, quality and quantity. Source: Getty Images/Photographers Choice

10. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Process charting D D D D D D D D D D D Activity Oper- ation Move -ment Delay Inspec -tion Storage

11. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Flow process charts for processing expense reports at Intel before and after improving the process

12. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Resources and flow: job design Method study: SREDIM Method study seeks to improve methods of production. It embraces layout, environment, material and labour usage: Select the task to be studied Record present method, using 5 charting symbols Examine the facts critically Develop the best method Install the new method Maintain by regular checks

13. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Resources and flow: job design Work measurement Standard times are the building blocks of process design. They represent the time needed for a qualified worker to carry out specific jobs at defined levels of performance. Basic time + allowances = standard time

14. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Rating scales British Standard I.L.O. American Standard Standard performance ‘Incentive’ ‘Normal’ 100 80 60 75

15. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 The stages in work measurement Basic time for element Observed time for element Basic time Observed time Rating Standard rating =× ‘Rating’ to adjust for effort

16. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 The stages in work measurement Basic time Standard time = Allowances + Basic time for element ‘Allowances’ for relaxation, etc. Standard time for element Standard time for job

17. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Element Basic time Allowances mins Standard time A B C D 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.3 2.1 17 12 10 17 0.10 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.28 0.70 0.45 0.88 0.35 2.38 Basic time 2.10 Allowance 0.28 Standard time = 2.38 Build-up of standard times %

18. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 A standard unit of work, e.g. 1 standard minute The ‘standard’ unit of work Light job 90% work 10% relaxation Average job 84% work 16% relaxation Heavy job 68% work 32% relaxation

19. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Ergonomics approach How the person interfaces with the physical aspects of his or her workplace How the person interfaces with the environmental conditions prevalent in his or her immediate working area Ergonomics is concerned primarily with the physiological aspects of job design – that is, with the human body and how it fits into its surroundings

20. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Ergonomics – How the person interfaces with the physical aspects of his or her workplace

21. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Ergonomics in the office environment Forearms approximately horizontal Seat back adjustability Good lumbar support Seat height adjustability No excess pressure on underside of thighs and backs of knees Foot support if needed Space for postural change, no obstacles under desk Leg room and clearance to allow postural changes

22. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Ergonomics in the office environment Keyboard usable, adjustable, detachable, legible Adequate lighting Distracting noise minimized Software appropriate to task, adapted to user, no undisclosed monitoring Screen: stable image, adjustable, readable, glare and reflection free Window covering Adequate contrast, no glare or distracting reflections Work surfaces: allow flexible arrangements, spacious, glare free

23. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Ergonomics – How the person interfaces with the environmental conditions prevalent in his or her immediate working area For example, people working in extreme conditions Source: Tibbett and Britten

24. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Forming natural Combining tasks work units Establishing client relationships Vertical loading Opening feedback channels Low absenteeism and turnover High satisfaction with the work High internal work motivation High quality work performance Techniques of job design Core job characteristics Mental states Performance and personal outcomes Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Experienced meaningfulness of the work Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity Behavioural approaches – Hackman and Oldham’s model of job design

25. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 More tasks which give increased responsibility, autonomy or decision- making Original job tasks Job enlargement Job enrichment More tasks of the same type Behavioural approaches – Job enlargement and enrichment

26. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Team working – where staff, often with overlapping skills, collectively perform a defined task and have a high degree of discretion over how they actually perform the task For example, a team of nurses sharing the responsibility to care for patients

27. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Empowerment means more than autonomy. It means giving staff the ability to change how they do their jobs and the authority to make changes to the job itself, as well as how it is performed.

28. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Empowerment – McDonald’s lets families share jobs. McDonald’s allows family members to cover each other’s jobs. Members of the same family working in the same outlet can work each other’s shifts without giving any prior notice or getting a manager’s permission. Source: Corbis/Reuters

29. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Flexible working – Increasingly, some people are expected to do their jobs while travelling, with only occasional visits to their ‘home’ location.

30. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Division of labour Ergonomics Behavioural approaches Empowerment Team working Flexible working Staff treated as a resource Staff treated as a cost Emphasis on managerial control Emphasis on commitment and engagement of staff Scientific management Self-managed method study

31. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Job design The way in which we structure the content and environment of the jobs of individual staff members within the workplace and the interface with the technology or facilities that they use. Ergonomics A branch of job design that is primarily concerned with the physiological aspects of job design, with how the human body fits with process facilities and the environment; can also be referred to as human factors, or human factors engineering. Human factors engineering An alternative term for ergonomics.

32. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Repetitive strain injury (RSI) Damage to the body because of repetition of activities. Anthropometric data Data that relates to people’s size, shape and other physical abilities, used in the design of jobs and physical facilities. Division of labour An approach to job design that involves dividing a task into relatively small parts, each of which is accomplished by a single person.

33. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Scientific management A school of management theory dating from the early twentieth century; more analytical and systematic than ‘scientific’ as such, sometimes referred to (pejoratively) as Taylorism, after Frederick Taylor who was influential in founding its principles. Method study The analytical study of methods of doing jobs with the aim of finding the ‘best’ or an improved job method. Work measurement A branch of work study that is concerned with measuring the time that should be taken for performing jobs.

34. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Work study The term generally used to encompass method study and work measurement, derived from the scientific management school. Principles of motion economy A checklist used to develop new methods in work study that is intended to eliminate elements of the job, combine elements together, simplify the activity or change the sequence of events so as to improve efficiency. Qualified worker The term used in work study to denote a person who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, intelligence, skill, education and knowledge to perform the task.

35. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Standard performance The term used in work measurement to indicate the rate of output that qualified workers will achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day, provided they are motivated to apply themselves, now generally accepted as a very vague concept. Basic time The time taken to do a job without any extra allowances for recovery. Time study A term used in work measurement to indicate the process of timing (usually with a stopwatch) and rating jobs. It involves observing times, adjusting or normalizing each observed time (rating) and averaging the adjusted times.

36. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Rating A work study technique that attempts to assess a worker’s rate of working relative to the observer’s concept of standard performance. It is controversial and now accepted as being an ambiguous process. Standard time A term used in work measurement that indicates the total time taken to do a job, including allowances for recovery and relaxation. Allowances The term used in work study to indicate the extra time allowed for rest, relaxation and personal needs.

37. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Synthesis from elemental data A work measurement technique for building up a time from previously timed elements. Predetermined motion–time systems (PMTS) A work measurement technique in which standard elemental times obtained from published tables are used to construct a time estimate for a whole job. Job rotation The practice of encouraging the movement of individuals between different aspects of a job in order to increase motivation.

38. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Job enlargement A term used in job design to indicate increasing the amount of work given to individuals in order to make the job less monotonous. Job enrichment A term used in job design to indicate increasing the variety and number of tasks within an individual’s job. This may include increased decision making and autonomy. Empowerment A term used in job design to indicate increasing the authority given to people to make decisions within the job or changes to the job itself.

39. Slack, Chambers and Johnston, Operations Management 5 th Edition © Nigel Slack, Stuart Chambers, and Robert Johnston 2007 Key Terms Test Multi-skilling Increasing the range of skills of individuals in order to increase motivation and/or improve flexibility. Flexi-time working Increasing the possibility of individuals varying the times during which they work. Annual hours A type of flexi-time working that controls the amount of time worked by individuals on an annual rather than a shorter basis. Teleworking The ability to work from home using telecommunications and/or computer technology.