2. Vocabulary (9) 1. Constitution 2. Bicameral 3. Confederation 4. Articles of Confederation 5. Ratify 6. Ordinance 7. Ordinance of 1785 8. Northwest Ordinance 9. Shays’s Rebellion

3.  By 1776, American colonists were planning for independence.  They knew that freedom from Great Britain would mean an end to colonial charters.  The colonists would need to form new governments.  In January 1776, New Hampshire’s leaders wrote the first state constitution. ◦ A constitution is a detailed, written plan for government.  Within a few years the other states had done the same.  The state governments were all very much alike.

4.  Most of the state legislatures were bicameral, divided into two parts, called houses.  Each state had a governor. ◦ The governor’s job was to carry out the laws.  Each state also had courts. ◦ Court judges decided how to apply the laws in cases of lawbreaking.

5.  Most state constitutions also included a bill of rights.  This is a list of the basic freedoms that belong to every citizen.  A bill of rights guarantees that the government will protect the rights of its citizens.  Some of these rights can be traced back to the Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights.

6.  Each state was ready to govern itself when independence was declared but the states needed to join together to win the war against Britain.  They needed one strong army under a single command.  In 1777, the Second Continental Congress wrote a plan to unite the states.  It called for the states to form a confederation.  A confederation is a group that comes together for a common purpose.  The plan was called the Articles of Confederation.

7.  It set up a "league of friendship" among the independent states.  By 1781, all 13 states had ratified the Articles. ◦ To ratify means to approve.  The Articles of Confederation became the first constitution of the United States.  The Articles of Confederation set up a national legislature, known as the Confederation Congress.  It had one house, and each state had one vote.  The legislature controlled the army and had the power to deal with foreign countries for the United States.

8.  The Confederation Congress passed two important laws, called ordinances.  These laws helped settle the Northwest Territory.  This was an area, or region, that would later become Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota.  The first law was the Ordinance of 1785. ◦ It set up rules for measuring and selling the land. ◦ It divided land into townships six miles square.  The second law was called the Northwest Ordinance, passed in 1787. ◦ This ordinance set up a plan for governing the new territory. ◦ It created a way for new states to join the Union. ◦ It also made slavery against the law in the Northwest Territory.  These ordinances would have a major impact, or effect, on the future settlement of the West.

9.  Congress could not enforce its own laws.  Its voting rules made it hard to get anything done. ◦ As a result, Congress was weak and states could ignore its laws.  The powers in the Articles helped the United States become a nation.  Congress was in debt and it could not collect taxes.  The state governments were also in debt. ◦ They taxed the people heavily. ◦ They also taxed goods imported from other states and countries. ◦ These taxes hurt trade. ◦ As trade slowed, merchants, workers, and farmers all suffered.

10.  In Massachusetts, a farmer named Daniel Shays owed money because of heavy taxes.  The state court threatened to take his farm away.  In response, Shays led an army of farmers in an attack on a federal building that held weapons.  Shays’s Rebellion scared the whole country.  Americans became fearful that the government could not protect them.  In 1787, twelve states sent delegates to a meeting in Philadelphia to change the Articles of Confederation. ◦ A delegate is someone who represents others.

11. Vocabulary (8) 1. Constitutional Convention 2. Great Compromise 3. Three-Fifths Compromise 4. Electoral College 5. Federalist 6. Federalism 7. The Federalist Papers 8. Anti-Federalist

12.  On May 25, 1787, a convention began in Philadelphia.  The purpose of this convention was to change the Articles of Confederation to make the national government stronger.

13.  Fifty-five delegates attended. ◦ Many of them had been leaders in government. ◦ Most were well educated and wealthy. ◦ They included lawyers, merchants, and planters.  Only Rhode Island did not send delegates. ◦ That state did not want a stronger central government.  Also, there were no women, African Americans, or Native Americans at the convention. ◦ These groups were not allowed to have a part in politics at that time.

14.  At the beginning of the convention process, the delegates chose General George Washington to lead them.  He was greatly respected for his leadership during the American Revolution.  The public would not be allowed at the meeting.  The doors were guarded and the windows were kept shut, despite the hot weather.  This would allow delegates to talk freely.  James Madison of Virginia kept a journal, however.

15.  The delegates also decided that the Articles of Confederation could not be fixed.  The Articles were too weak and flawed.  They decided to write a whole new plan of government.  The United States Constitution was the result of their work.  The meeting came to be known as the Constitutional Convention.

16.  When the delegates began their work, the Virginia delegates introduced a plan, written by James Madison.  The Virginia Plan called for a government with a president, a congress with two houses, and courts.  It was very similar to our government today.  The number of representatives in both houses of congress would be based on each state’s population. ◦ This would give large states more votes—and more power— than small states.  Delegates from smaller states did not like the Virginia Plan.  They thought that a congress controlled by large states would ignore their interests.

17.  The small states introduced a plan called the New Jersey Plan.  It called for a congress with one house.  Each state would have one vote so all states had equal power.  This plan thought a committee, not a president, should carry out the laws.  There was much debate.  Large and small states could not agree.

18.  Finally, Roger Sherman of Connecticut came up with a compromise. ◦ A compromise is an agreement between opposing sides. ◦ Each side gives up something but gains something else.  Sherman’s plan called for two houses of congress—a Senate and a House of Representatives.  In the Senate, each state would have two members. ◦ The small states liked this. ◦ It gave them equal power in the Senate.  In the House, the number of members for each state would be based on population. ◦ The large states liked this. ◦ It gave them more power in the House.

19.  Disagreements came up between Northern and Southern delegates also.  They disagreed about representation in Congress.  The Southern states wanted to count 550,000 slaves as part of their populations. ◦ This would give them more seats in the House and more power.  The Northern states were against this.  In Congress, a member has a “seat” so the number of members are counted as seats.  The delegates came up with a plan called the Three- Fifths Compromise.  They decided that every five enslaved people would equal three free people.  This meant that three-fifths of the enslaved population of a state would count toward seats in Congress.

20.  Northern and Southern delegates also compromised on trade.  The delegates agreed to give Congress the power to make laws regulating trade. ◦ This included trade between states and trade with other countries. ◦ This pleased the Northern delegates because trade was important to their economy.  The delegates did not allow Congress to tax exports. ◦ Exports are goods sold to other countries.  Congress could not try to end the slave trade before 1808. ◦ This pleased the Southern delegates. ◦ Their economy depended on exports of crops grown by enslaved laborers.

21.  Another compromise settled a debate over how to choose the president.  Some delegates thought the state legislatures should elect the president; others thought the people should.  The convention decided on an Electoral College to elect a president. ◦ This is a special group of electors. ◦ They would be chosen by state legislatures to elect the president and vice president. ◦ The Electoral College is still in use today. ◦ However, the voters of each state now choose the electors.

22.  The delegates signed the finished document on September 17, 1787.  Now it was up to the states to approve it.  At least nine states had to ratify the Constitution for it to become the law of the land.  Those who supported the Constitution were known as Federalists.  They believed the Constitution would create a system in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the states.  This is called federalism.  James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay were leaders of the Federalists.  They argued that the nation needed a strong central government to survive.  They wrote essays in defense of the Constitution.  These essays are known as the Federalist Papers.

23.  People who opposed the Constitution were called Anti- Federalists. ◦ They argued that a strong central government would ignore the rights of the states. ◦ They also thought it would favor wealthy people. ◦ They pointed out that the Constitution had no bill of rights to protect citizens.  Many states said they would not ratify it without a bill of rights.  Federalist leaders promised to add a bill of rights if the Constitution was adopted.  In June of 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, and the Constitution took effect.  By May of 1790, the other four states had also ratified.  The thirteen states were now a nation.

24. Vocabulary (6) 1. Preamble 2. Article 3. Amendment 4. Legislative branch 5. Executive branch 6. Judicial branch

25.  The U.S. Constitution is more than a plan of government.  It is the highest law of the land.  It is a symbol of our nation and its values of freedom and fairness.  The Constitution has three main parts.  It has a preamble, articles, and amendments.

26.  The first part is the Preamble.  The Preamble states the purposes of the Constitution.  It is one sentence long.  It begins with these famous words: ◦ “We the People of the United States....”  It ends with these words: ◦ “... do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”  These words make clear that the power of government comes from the people.

27.  The second part of the Preamble lists six purposes of the government.  They are: to unite the states to make sure people are treated equally to keep peace and order and protect citizens to defend the country from attack to help the people live healthy and happy lives to guarantee people’s basic rights

28.  The second part of the Constitution is made up of the SEVEN articles, or sections.  They describe how the government is to be set up.  The government is divided into three parts called branches; each branch has different powers.  Article I describes the legislative branch, or Congress. ◦ This branch has the power to make laws. ◦ It describes how members will be chosen and what rules Congress has to follow when making laws.

29.  Article II describes the executive branch. ◦ This branch carries out the laws and makes sure laws are obeyed.  The president and vice president lead the executive branch.  This article explains how these leaders are elected and how they can be removed from office.  It also lists the president’s powers, which includes leading the armed forces.

30.  Article III describes the judicial branch.  This branch is made up of the Supreme Court and lower courts.  The Supreme Court is the head of the judicial branch.  The courts interpret laws, or decide what laws mean, and make sure laws are enforced fairly.  This article also describes the kind of cases the courts may hear.  The rest of the articles explain the relationship between the states and the federal government and how the Constitution can be changed.

31.  The last part of the Constitution is made up of the amendments.  These are changes that have been added over time.  There are 27 amendments.  The first ten amendments are the Bill of Rights. ◦ They were added soon after ratification.

32.  The writers of the Constitution knew that changing even a small detail of the Constitution would have a major effect on the government.  They wanted to make sure it could be changed when the people demanded it.  They did not want change to be too easy, but they did want it to be possible.  The two step process to change and amendment: ◦ an amendment must be proposed. ◦ then it must be ratified.

33.  An amendment may be proposed either by: ◦ a two-thirds vote of Congress, ◦ or by a national convention called by two-thirds of state governments.  To ratify an amendment, three-fourths of the states must vote to approve it. ◦ Of the thousands of amendments proposed, only 27 have ever been passed. ◦ These amendments are called “formal” amendments because they are officially part of the Constitution.

34.  However, certain actions by the president have led to informal, or unofficial, amendments.  For example, in 1841 William Henry Harrison became the first president to die in office.  Vice President John Tyler assumed, or accepted, the powers of the president as authorized by the Constitution.  The Constitution did not say if Tyler automatically became president or if he was just acting as president until the next election.  Tyler took the presidential oath.  This meant he was president, not just acting president.  His action became an informal amendment.  It was the way things were done for more than a hundred years.  In 1967, the Twenty-fifth Amendment was ratified.  It made Tyler’s action a formal part of the Constitution.

35.  The writers of the Constitution knew that the world would change; they wanted the Constitution to be as general as possible.  They were very specific about some things but left others open to interpretation. ◦ For example, the Constitution gives Congress the power to make all laws that are “necessary and proper.” ◦ This allows Congress to use powers that are not directly written in the Constitution. ◦ These are called “implied powers.” ◦ Regulating, or controlling, air pollution is an example of an implied power.  The Supreme Court is the final judge of what the Constitution means. ◦ However, the Court’s interpretations can change. ◦ As new judges come on to the court, interpretations can vary.  Congress and the president also sometimes change the way they interpret their powers.  Changing customs and values can also bring about new interpretations of the Constitution.  Though interpretations can change how the Constitution is applied, the basic principles and organization of our government will remain the same.

36. Vocabulary (9) 1. popular sovereignty 2. limited government 3. rule of law 4. separation of powers 5. checks and balances 6. enumerated powers 7. reserved powers 8. concurrent powers 9. supremacy clause

37.  Principles are basic beliefs that guide people’s lives.  Principles can also guide governments.  The United States Constitution contains five basic principles.  They are the base on which our government is built.  These five principles are: Popular sovereignty Limited government and the rule of law Separation of powers Checks and balances Federalism

38.  Popular sovereignty is the idea that the power of government comes from the people. ◦ Sovereignty means “the right to rule.” ◦ Popular means “of the people.” ◦ So popular sovereignty is “the people’s right to rule.”  The Constitution ensures, or guarantees, popular sovereignty by giving citizens the right to vote. ◦ The will of the people, or what they want, is shown in whom they elect. ◦ The people elect members of Congress to represent them. ◦ The people vote for a president to lead them. ◦ All elected officials have to answer to the people who put them in positions of power. ◦ Otherwise, the people will vote for someone else next time.

39.  Limited government is the idea that the government can do only what the people allow it to do.  The writers of the Constitution did not want the government to have too much power, so they put specific limits in the Constitution.  The Constitution states what the federal government and the states may and may not do.

40.  Under the Constitution, the government is also limited by the rule of law.  This means that the law applies to everyone; even to those who govern.  No one, even the president, is above the law.  The Constitution limits power in another way, too.  It divides the government into three branches.

41.  This is called separation of powers.  The Constitution assigns each branch its own tasks.  Each branch has some power, but no branch has all the power.  Even so, the writers of the Constitution feared that one branch could still control the other two.

42.  Different tasks are assigned to different branches of government.  These are ways that each branch can limit the power of the other two branches.  A good example of checks and balances is how laws are made.  The Constitution says that a bill passed by Congress must be signed by the president to become law.  The president can also veto, or refuse, to sign, a bill.  This veto is a check on legislative power.  However, Congress can override the veto if two-thirds of its members vote to do so.  This is a check on executive power.  There are many checks and balances in the Constitution.  They allow the branches of government to challenge each other’s power.

43.  Our federal system also limits the power of government.  Under this system, power is divided between the national government and the states.  Some powers are also shared.  The Constitution gives certain powers to the national government.  These are called enumerated powers. ◦ Enumerated means “listed” or “spelled out.” ◦ The national government can set up post offices and print money because of these powers. ◦ Other powers are set aside, or reserved, for the states.  These are called reserved powers. ◦ For example, the states can set up and oversee school systems.

44.  Some powers belong to both levels of government.  These are called concurrent powers. ◦ They include the power to collect taxes and to set up courts and prisons.  In a federal system, a state may sometimes pass a law that conflicts with, or is different from, a federal law.  The writers of the Constitution knew this might happen.

45.  So they included a statement called the supremacy clause.  It says that the Constitution and other laws and treaties made by the national government “shall be the supreme Law of the Land.”  This means that federal law has authority over state law.  The Constitution has authority over both.