1. Facial Reconstruction
(No two faces are alike, not even those of identical twins)
The process whereby the face of an individual is built onto the skull for the purpose of identification. The same way that we all have unique faces, we all have unique skulls, and it is the small variations in the shape, form and proportions of the skull that lead to significant variations in our faces.

2. Facial Reconstruction
In this section of Forensics, you will:
Learn the anatomy of the head
Work the Manchester Method of forensic reconstruction
Understand the anatomical roots of facial expression

3. History of Facial Reconstruction
7000 BC in Neolithic Jericho – Skulls of the deceased were plastered and adorned with cowrie shells mimicking living tissue. These were used for spiritual purposes rather than for identification. These types of skulls have also been found in Meso-America and New Guinea.
Aristotle ( BC) – first to apply physiognomy (the deduction of
character from facial morphology) in his book Historia animalium
Bertillon (1877) – Paris Police force. He kept face and body
measurements on all criminals.

4. Facial Reconstruction - History
1907 – 1970 Mikhail Gerasimov spent his young years collecting and bones and reconstructing. He worked mainly with the cranium working with his knowledge of the individual traits. Some of his work is still used today.
Gatliff and Snow (1970) – developed the “American Method” of facial reconstruction based only on tissue depth.
Enlow (1982) – Facial differences and additional details such as eye color, skin color, hair color and texture can suggest the sex, ethnic origin and age of a face.
Richard Neave (1997) – developed the “Manchester Method” based on the relationship the soft and hard tissues of the face.

5. Methods of Facial Reconstruction
American Method – developed by Betty Gatliff and Clyde Snow. It relies primarily on tissue depth data and does not require the application of fleshy tissues such as muscle.
Manchester Method – developed by John Prag and
Richard Neave. This method combines tissue depth,
anatomy, and careful observations of the skull. This
method was developed at the University of Manchester
due to the work done on Egyptian mummies.
We will be using this method!

6. Navigating the Cranium - Bones
The skull is made up of 22 bones consisting of 14 facial bones and 8 cranial bones.
These are the required bones!
Calvarium
Frontal Eminence
Infraorbital Margin
Supraorbital Ridge
Mandible
Mastoid Process
Maxilla
Parietal Eminence
Temporal Bone
Zygomatic Bone

7. Navigating the Cranium - Bones
Calvarium
Infraorbital Margin
Frontal Eminence
Supraorbital Ridge

8. Navigating the Cranium - Bones
Mastoid Process
Parietal Eminence
Mandible
Maxilla

9. Navigating the Cranium - Bones
Temporal Bone
Zygomatic Bone

10. Navigating the Cranium - Muscles
Frontallis
Septum Cartilage
Procerus
Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis oris
Zygomatic major
Zygomatic minor
Mentalis
Masseter
Temperal

11. Navigating the Cranium - Muscles
Frontalis
Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis oris
Septum Cartilage
Zygomatic minor
Procerus
Zygomatic major

12. Navigating the Cranium - Muscles
Mentalis
Depressor Anguli inferior
Depressor Anguli oris
Masseter
Temporal

13. Navigating the Cranium – Glands
Parotid glands – salivary gland
Cheeks are irregular in shape and glands fill them in.
EX. Squeeze your cheeks near your masseter with your hand and pull forward. You can feel the increase in saliva in your mouth.

14. Navigating the Cranium - Adipose
Adipose tissue
fatty tissue,
determined by genetics.
influenced by race, gender
changes with age particularly along the jawline.
correlates to body weight. Weight can be determined by clothes left on the body
cultural background.
Tissue depth markers indicate body fat on an average.
*not on nose or zygomatic bone
*lateral sausage shape near the supraorbital ridge present
on women.

15. Assess the gender, age and race
To reconstruct, one must assess the skull for an accuracy of gender, age estimated to within five years and one of three racial groups (Caucasian, Negroid and Mongoloid)
Gender
FEMALE
MALE
Skull
Narrow
Skull
Rounder
Prominent Occipital Bone
Forehead
Higher, smoother, vertical, more round
Forehead
Less bossed
Supraorbital Ridges
Strongly developed
Orbital Margins
round
Glabella (brow)
Larger
Nasal aperture
Narrow
Orbital Margins
Rectangular
Cheekbones
parabolic
Cheekbones
Heavier -Ushaped
Mandible - thicker

16. Assess the gender, age and race
1. Bones begin to fuse at approximately 16 years.
Sacrum (base of spine, consists of 5 vertebra) – fuse at age
Sutures - plates are not sutured in young children. Soft areas are apparent in children 0-3 yrs of age. Fusion of sutures usually begin at age 17 and complete at 25 years. Old age (65 and older) sutures are almost hidden.
Basilar suture – (base of skull) the best area for age determination.
18 – 24 yrs

17. Assess the gender, age and race
2. Teeth are the primary assessment of age of skull
Juvenile
Central incisor 6-9 months
Lateral incisor months
Canine months
First molar months
Second molar months
Permanent Adult
Central incisor years
Lateral incisor years
Canine years
First premolar years
Second premolar years
First molar years
Second molar years
Third molar years
Teeth – (dentition) wear and tear is relatively precise although
eating and lifestyle is an influence. Smoking will damage
teeth and consistent use of a pipe can cause breakage.

18. Assess the gender, age and race
Most commonly used racial groups:
Caucasoid – Europeans
Negroid – West and South Africa
Mongoloid – Asiatics, Inuit (Canadian,
Alaskan) and Native Americans

19. Assess the gender, age and race
Caucasoid
Long narrow shape
Narrow nasal aperture
Depressed glabella
Sharp cheekbones
Prominent frontal aspect
Prominent chin
Steeper forehead
Lower face

20. Assess the gender, age and race
Negroid
Long head shape
Wide nasal aperture
Sharp upper orbital margins
Low round nasal root
Rounded glabella
Wide interorbital distance
More rounded forehead
Bimaxillary protrusion

21. Assess the gender, age and race
Mongoloid
Round head shape
Medium nasal aperture
Rounded orbital margins
Massive cheek bones
Prominent zygomatic bones
Straight nasal profile
Flatter face
Shallow orbitals
Upright forehead
Less protruding nose
Narrowest mouth
Smallest upper lip

22. So……What do we have??? AGE?? 40-60 years of age GENDER?? Female RACE??
Caucasion

23. Let’s Begin! Tissue Thickness in mm (Stephen/Simpson)
Locate these on your skull.
Cut eraser to the correct mm.
Sand paper area.
Hot glue
Opisthocranion
Vertex 3.5
Grabella
Nasion 5.5
Mid-nasion 3.0
Rhinion (end of nasais) 2.75
Sub-nasale
Mid-phitrum 8.5
Labrale superius(upper lip margin) 9.0
Labrale inferius (lower lip margin) 10.0
Mentolabial sulcus (chin-lip fold) 9.5
Pogonion (mental eminence ) 10.0
Gnathion 6.0
Menton (beneath chin) 5.75
Mid-supraorbital 7.0
Mid-infraorbital 6.0
Zygomatic arch 7.5
Gonion
Supra canine 9.5
Infra-canine
Supra M
Mid-ramus
Mid-mandibular border 9.5
Infra-M
Alare curvature point 8.5

24. Let’s Begin – Tissue Markers
op Opisthocranion
v Vertex 4.5
g Grabella 4.75
n Nasion 5.5
mn Mid-nasion 4.0
rhi Rhinion (end of nasais) 2.75
sn Sub-nasale 13.0
mp Mid-phitrum 8.5
ls Labrale superius(upper lip margin) 9.0
li Labrale inferius (lower lip margin) 10.0
mls Mentolabial sulcus (chin-lip fold) 9.5
pg Pogonion (mental eminence 10.0
gn Gnathion 8.5
m Menton (beneath chin) 5.75
mso Mid-supraorbital 7.0
mio Mid-infraorbital 6.0
acp Alare curvature point 9.5
go Gonion 12.0
z Zygomatic arch 7.5
sC Supra canine 9.5
iC Infra-canine 10.5
sM Supra M
mr Mid-ramus 17.5
mmb Mid-mandibular border 10.5
iM Infra-M 15.5 v v
mso g
mso n g mn
mso op
rhi n
mio
mio mn z z
rhi
acp
acp
mso z sn
sM2 mp
sM2
acp sn mr
sM2 mr mr sC ls sC mp
iM2 li
iM2 ls sC iC iC go go li go
mls iC
iM2
mls pg
mmb pg
mmb gn gn
mmb m m

25. Let’s Begin – Muscle Insertion
Order of Deposition:
Tissue Markers
Eyes
Muscles
Nose
Lips
Skin
Ears

26. Eyes Locate the lacrimal crest Locate the malar tubercle
Place clay in the back of the socket
Locate the lacrimal crest
(raised bony ridge where the tear duct enters the orbit)
Locate the malar tubercle
( bump in the contour, 9mm below the zygomatic suture)

27. Eyes The eyeball should be positioned so that the flat
plane of the iris is
touching a tangent
taken from the mid-
supraorbital point to the
mid-infraorbital point.

28. Nose
1. Project a medial line downward from downward “curve” of the nasal bone.
2. Project a line from the nasal spine outward.
3. Connect the lines (popsicle sticks) with hot glue.

29. Mouth – lip thickness White Europeans
Measure the length of the enameled are on the teeth
White Europeans
Upper lip = X (upper teeth height)
Lower lip = X (lower teeth height)
Asians
Upper lip = X (upper teeth height)
Lower lip = X (lower teeth height)

30. Mouth
Place the chelion points (corners of the mouth) at the junction of the top canine and the 1st premolar.
Place them about half way down the enameled surface of the teeth.
2nd Incisor
1st Incisor
1st Premolar
canine

31. Ears
Small mastoid process, which are directed inside the skull, suggest small ears that are close to the head.
Massive prominent mastoids indicate large spread-out ears.
Mastoid process are directed downward = attached lobe.
Mastoid process point forward = lobe is free

32. Glands and Adipose Tissue
Fill in adipose tissue under risorius muscle and zygomatic major and zygomatic minor.
Fill in the parotid gland
Fill in adipose where necessary.

33. Skin
1. Roll clay into sheet about 3mm thick. (Mist clay if it sticks to the roller)
2. Keep skin and eyes extremely thin.
Find individuals online of a variety of individuals of the same age, race and gender that you estimate of your reconstruction. Use for creases, edges of lips, bags and folds around eyes.
DO NOT MUSH. Only push to find the markers!

34. Eyebrows, hair and attire.
Eyebrows and hair can be added using actual hair, false hair, or by simply molding a texture with a tool.
Attire may be from clothing replicated from the crime scene.

36. Gallery (con’t)