1. Chapter 10 Gender, Politics, Government, and the Military

2. History of US Gender and Politics In 1776 Abigail Adams wrote to her husband John asking that the declaration of independence include “the ladies”. John Adams wrote back “I cannot but laugh…we know better than to repeal our masculine” You know the outcome-only white male property owners were mentioned ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 2

3. History of US Gender and Politics Indeed the Constitution took away some rights that women had including the right to vote in some states such as Massachusetts and New Jersey When we talk about politics we’re talking about power Power in the sense of distributing resources, institutionalizing values and the legitimatization of violence ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 3

4. Power A more sociological definition of power is the accumulation of sufficient influence to alter or select the goals of a group or an institution. Influence is accumulated by the exchange of things of value. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 4

5. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Politics of Gender The different political roles and attitudes of men and women primarily in the US American women have long been excluded from politics on the grounds that: –They were too stupid, too frail, too emotional, and too irrational –This situation is finally beginning to change

6. Political attitudes and activities Women were not granted the right to vote until 1922 of the United States Between 1920 in 1960 men voted much more often than women –Since 1960 women and men have been about equally likely to vote –Frequently attributed to increasing education of women –In 1980 women and men voted differently and generally have continued to do so ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 6

7. Political attitudes and activities The reasons for the difference in voting patterns are exceedingly complex and include –Economics –Foreign policy –Social welfare –Environmental and public safety. –Healthcare –childcare ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 7

8. Political attitudes and activities Men are more concerned about –The federal deficit –Taxes –Energy –Defense and foreign policy Strong and consistent gender gap having to do with war –Except after 9/11 ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 8

9. Political attitudes and activities Both men and women in 2005 supported the death penalty although men more than women Women are much more likely to support gun control Women are more likely to oppose nuclear power plants than men ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 9

10. Political attitudes and activities A majority of both men and women are in favor of a women’s right to choose whether or not she wants an abortion under some circumstances More women than men report that a position on this issue would affect their vote Nevertheless, many factors other than sex influence political attitudes and behaviors –Race, ethnicity, education, marital status, social class, and sexual orientation among others ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 10

11. Political attitudes and activities Sexual orientation has played an important role in recent elections –Especially since the lesbian and gay political organizations have been successful in both public relations and influencing candidates with fund-raising. Causes for the gender gap might include –women’s greater caring, sensitive community and connectedness –Men’s greater focus on competition ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 11

12. Political attitudes and activities Differences between various groups of women’s voting such as –Labor force participation color –Differences between lesbian and straight women –Marital status Old stereotypes die hard so some include –Women may be more moralistic or humanitarian than men –These stereotypes may be applied to candidates as well as voting choices ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 12

13. Gender and Political activity Lester Millbrath set up categories of political activity as follows –Spectator: votes, wears buttons, bumper stickers and requires minimal effort –Transitional: writing to public officials, making campaign contributions, attending rallies were meetings –Gladiator: working on a campaign, taking an active role in a political party, running for office ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 13

14. Gender and Political activity There appeared to be very few differences between the sexes as unfair level of political activity. –Most people are uninvolved in politics –Historically women have been slightly more then men spectator rather than transitional activities. Perhaps because men had more money to spend on politics And perhaps women have been overlooked in their role ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 14

15. Gender and Political activity Much of women’s activity may have been focused on grassroots community actions And on fighting to preserve women’s rights which have been eroded by local legislation and budget cuts –Much of the activity of scholars studying political action has focused on the highest level of political activism-the gladiators Especially national candidates –Women have served as for the gladiators by going door to door, stuffing envelopes, making phone calls ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 15

16. Gender and Political activity Women’s representation at national political conventions has been low historically and only began to significantly increase in 1972. If men and women are roughly equal in political interest and activity at least by voting, they are not equally represented in holding public office. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 16

17. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Gender Gap: Political Attitudes and Activities Gender gap –Differences in voting patterns and political attitudes of women and men The gender gap is far more complex than it at first appears to be A strong & consistent gender gap emerges with respect to issues of war and peace

18. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Gender Gap: Political Attitudes and Activities Women & men share similar views on: –Protecting the environment & women’s rights Gender and Political Activities –Spectator activities –Transitional activities –Gladiator activities

19. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.1 The Gender Gap in Presidential Elections, 1952–2008

20. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.2 Voters in the 2008 Presidential Election

21. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.3 Gender Differences in Political Activities, 2004

22. Gender and Political Office Throughout the world have had a virtual monopoly on public offices 191 countries in the world in 2000 only seven had ever had female heads of government –Women are underrepresented at all levels political decision making in countries that have parliaments –In 179 countries with parliaments only 11% of the members are women ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 22

23. Gender and Political Office Women’s representation in elected positions in the United States increased considerably during the 1980s and 90s –Putting the United States 39 th female legislators as of 1997 One explanation for this gap has been the way boys and girls are socialized However studies of school-age children find little difference in boys and girls political views ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 23

24. Gender and Political Office A second explanation for the gap is that women devote more time to their domestic responsibilities children are young and thus don’t have time for politics. –There is evidence that women enter politics later than men –European politics the women involved are less often married and/or have fewer children than male politicians ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 24

25. Gender and Political Office Child rearing responsibilities of women hold them back (probably) where women prefer political careers and men don’t. A third, possibly unlikely explanation is that men outnumber women in political offices because women are less qualified. –Female officeholders however are more likely to have attended college –The number of women in public office who are lawyers and business people has increased. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 25

26. Gender and Political Office Note that a majority of federal legislators are lawyers. Another argument for why women don’t hold lots of offices because of discrimination. –Surveys show that discrimination against women has declined years As more and more women have run for office is no longer considered unusual for women to run for high public office ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 26

27. Gender and Political Office The role of the media –Lots of questions about women’s ability to raise money and to be elected –Media tends to focus on what women think of women’s issues –Even worse on what women wear and whether or not they cry There is also discrimination against women in the internal politics of political parties. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 27

28. Gender and Political Office The majority of party leaders are male, and many subscribe to traditional gender stereotypes Such prejudice is strongest in the South and states were small number of people make a majority of the decisions Historically when a party was about to lose an election it nominated a female “sacrificial lamb” ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 28

29. Gender and Political Office Money is raised from a variety of sources –Individual contributions –Political action committees (PAC) –Female and minority candidates have received relatively little money from the PACs or from other donors Women became more prominent in forming their own political action committees and other fundraising sources in the 1990s. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 29

30. Gender and Political Office The number of women in state and local governments in 2002 was substantially then it had been in previous years. –22% of state legislators –21% of mayors and cities with 30 or more thousand people In 1993 the number of women in the U.S. Congress both the Senate and the House increased remarkably –As of 2001 13% of the Senate and 41% of the house were women ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 30

31. Gender and Political Office When race and ethnicity are taken into account 1992’s election was a watershed for both women and men of color. Women in the house and the Senate have rarely held leadership positions –Until three years ago when Nancy Pelosi became speaker of the house and thus third in line for the presidency –Women have chaired major committees in the Senate since the early 1990s ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 31

32. Gender and Political Office One of the reasons that women have had difficulty becoming congressional leaders is that it seems to take a minimum of five terms (10 years in the House, 30 years in the Senate) to rise to powerful positions. We’ve had a number of candidates for president and vice president who have been women, but a small number ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 32

33. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender and Public Office Women and men, it seems, have a similar interest in politics: –If we use their voting rates and political activism as indicators Explanation for the gender gap in officeholding

34. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender and Public Office Incumbent Political action committees or PACs Women and Men in State and Local Government Women and Men in the Federal Government

35. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.4 Seats Held by Women in Parliamentary Governments

36. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.5 Women in State and Local Government, Selected Offices, 2011

37. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.6 Women in the U.S. Congress, 1949–2011

38. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 10.6 Women in the U.S. Congress, 1949–2011

39. Gender and Appointive Office There are a little bit less than 300 and government jobs that the president appoints but which require Senate confirmation –The first woman appointed to the Pres.’s Cabinet was Frances Perkins in 1933 appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt to head the Department of Labor –There have been many more since then particularly since Bill Clinton was president He was also the first to point gay men and lesbians to high-ranking federal positions ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 39

40. Gender and Appointive Office Among the most important offices the president appoints are members of the Supreme Court. –Sandra Day O’Connor was the first woman nominated and approved by the Senate as a member of the Supreme Court –President Clinton also nominated Ruth Bader Ginsburg –President Obama is nominated and succeeded in getting approved to women ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 40

41. Gender and Appointive Office Women on the Supreme Court don’t seem to have made much of a difference in court decisions. Recent Supreme Court appointees have also selected or women as their clerks than earlier appointees Research indicates that women in elected and appointed offices have a positive impact on women’s legal rights ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 41

42. Gender in the Military There is evidence from earlier times and other societies in modern times that women have been accepted as combatants in armies –The discovery in Kazakhstan that women who had defended their country and property in historic times use bows and arrows from their horses in defense –In the 19 th century the West African nation now known as Benin had an all female fighting force of at least 4000 people ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 42

43. Gender in the Military During World War II women in Russia served as machine gunners and other combat roles as well as snipers In Israel in the 1930s and 40s women were active combatants even though they weren’t officially acknowledged In the 1980s Eritrean women fought with their men driving tanks and heavy artillery. In the United States women fought (disguised as men) in the Revolutionary war and later in the Civil War. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 43

44. Gender in the Military For the most part however the American armed forces do not accept women –The belief is that war and the military are male activities and things that are feminine are derided. In the 1990s the superintendent of the Virginia Military Institute refused to accept women because “military training is not for the faint of heart” until he was ordered to do so by the Supreme Court in 1996 Women were first recruited by the Armed Forces during World War I but were limited to nursing and clerical jobs –Therefore they did not get veterans benefits ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 44

45. Gender in the Military During the second world war women were recruited for service in the Army Navy and Air Force. –But they’ll roles were limited and men were admitted with less abilities, less education than the women who were recruited –The women were frequently in danger zones and some were wounded or killed However is some servicemen and the media continued to hold a gender stereotypes and derided the women ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 45

46. Gender in the Military The media continue to report on whether the women were issued girdles. Many were derided as wars or lesbians in search of partners Until the late 1960s women were in the reserves because they were a cheap source of labor and were dismissed when men were available to replace them Shortly after World War II 98% of the women in the army were discharged but did not get the right to get their old jobs back ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 46

47. Gender in the Military The Veterans Administration is still male oriented Women have to meet higher enlistment standards than men It’s only been recently that women reach the rank of general or captain in the Navy As part of a training women were instructed how to maintain a lady like appearance despite the tight skirts they had to wear ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 47

48. Gender in the Military The political actions in the 1960s such a is removing the limit on the number of women allowed to enlist in the military, the wide publicity given the rights amendment even though it didn’t pass. The draft was ended and the military became all volunteer The Supreme Court overturned the military policy of awarding dependence benefits to personnel on the basis of different criteria based on sex –And another court decision prevented the Navy from banning women from sea duty ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 48

49. Gender in the Military There has been a long history of sexual harassment in the military. –First came to public attention when Navy pilots at a tailhook convention where naval officers abused female naval officers. –Military personnel have been convicted of rape –It seems clear that not all sexual harassment and complaints are recognized and properly dealt with by the institution ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 49

50. Don’t Ask Don’t Tell There have probably been gay men and lesbian women in the military as long as men and women have been in the military. –Until 1994 such people were drummed out of the military –1994 the don’t ask don’t tell policy was implemented which allowed gay people to serve as long as they weren’t open about their orientation or engaged in homosexual acts ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 50

51. Don’t Ask Don’t Tell This was supposed to reduce harassment and witch hunts. It was declared constitutional in 1996 It is being essentially eliminated in the practice of banning homosexuals from serving in the military whether or not they are open about their sexual orientation is currently being eliminated. ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc 51

52. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Women and Men in the Military Historical & cross-cultural research shows women have often supported militarism: –And have even engaged in combat and other military activities Women’s Army Corps (WAC) Frontiero v. Richardson

53. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Women and Men in the Military There are accounts of women who disguised themselves as men –And fought at the front beside their husbands or brothers Homosexuals in the U.S. Military Women who joined the military had to meet higher enlistment standards