1. Ch.1 How Geographers Look at the World

2. Sec.1 Exploring Geography Geographers are specialists who describe the earth’s physical and human features and the interactions of people, places, and environments. Geographers are specialists who describe the earth’s physical and human features and the interactions of people, places, and environments. They search for patterns in features and interactions, seeking to explain how and why they occur. They search for patterns in features and interactions, seeking to explain how and why they occur.

3. The World in Spatial Terms Location helps geographers refer to spatial relationships. Location helps geographers refer to spatial relationships. Absolute location is determined using a grid system of imaginary lines. Absolute location is determined using a grid system of imaginary lines. The Equator circles the earth midway between the North & South Poles and divides the North & South hemispheres. The Equator circles the earth midway between the North & South Poles and divides the North & South hemispheres. The Prime Meridian (the north-south line that runs through Greenwich, England) divides the East & West hemispheres. The Prime Meridian (the north-south line that runs through Greenwich, England) divides the East & West hemispheres. Most people use relative location. Most people use relative location.

4. Places and Regions Geographers seek to understand and explain how places are similar to and different from one another. Geographers seek to understand and explain how places are similar to and different from one another. Places are often grouped into regions, or areas united by specific factors. Places are often grouped into regions, or areas united by specific factors. A formal region is defined by a common characteristic, such as a product produced there. A formal region is defined by a common characteristic, such as a product produced there. A functional region is a central place and the surrounding area linked to it. A functional region is a central place and the surrounding area linked to it. A perceptual region is defined by popular feelings and images rather than by objective data. A perceptual region is defined by popular feelings and images rather than by objective data.

5. Geographers study physical systems such as volcanic eruptions and ecosystems. Geographers study physical systems such as volcanic eruptions and ecosystems. They also study human systems such as settlement, societies, movement, and how they change the earth. They also study human systems such as settlement, societies, movement, and how they change the earth. Governments, businesses, and individuals use geographic information in planning and decision making. Governments, businesses, and individuals use geographic information in planning and decision making.

6. Sec.2 The Geographer’s Craft Two major branches of geography are physical and human. Two major branches of geography are physical and human. These two branches are then further divided into categories such as historical geography and meteorology. These two branches are then further divided into categories such as historical geography and meteorology. Geographers methods of study include direct observation, mapping, interviewing, statistics, and the use of technology. Geographers methods of study include direct observation, mapping, interviewing, statistics, and the use of technology.

7. Cartographers are able to present information on maps better than can be explained in written text. Cartographers are able to present information on maps better than can be explained in written text. Maps allow for a visual comparison between places and regions. Maps allow for a visual comparison between places and regions. Statistical data such as temperature, rainfall measurements, and census data allow geographers to understand trends. Statistical data such as temperature, rainfall measurements, and census data allow geographers to understand trends. Statistical data helps people make decisions such as where to build schools & roads or how to cope with weather. Statistical data helps people make decisions such as where to build schools & roads or how to cope with weather.

8. Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer tools that process and organize data and satellite images with other pieces of information gathered by geographers and other scientists. Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer tools that process and organize data and satellite images with other pieces of information gathered by geographers and other scientists. Most cartographers rely on GIS to create maps. Most cartographers rely on GIS to create maps.

9. Ch.2 The Earth Earth is part of our solar system, which is made up of the sun and all of the countless objects that revolve around it. Earth is part of our solar system, which is made up of the sun and all of the countless objects that revolve around it. About 70% of earth’s surface is water called the hydrosphere. About 70% of earth’s surface is water called the hydrosphere. The lithosphere, the land or crust, makes up 30% of the planet. The lithosphere, the land or crust, makes up 30% of the planet. The air we breathe is part of a layer of gasses extending about 6,000 miles called the atmosphere. The air we breathe is part of a layer of gasses extending about 6,000 miles called the atmosphere. The biosphere is the part of Earth that supports life. The biosphere is the part of Earth that supports life.

10. The seven continents are Australia, Antarctica, Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Africa. The seven continents are Australia, Antarctica, Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and Africa. Europe and Asia are actually part of the same landmass called Eurasia. Europe and Asia are actually part of the same landmass called Eurasia. Surrounding each continent is land that extends under water called the continental shelf. Surrounding each continent is land that extends under water called the continental shelf. The highest point on Earth is Mount Everest. The highest point on Earth is Mount Everest. The lowest dry land point in the shore of the Dead Sea. The lowest dry land point in the shore of the Dead Sea. The Earth’s deepest known depression is the Mariana Trench. The Earth’s deepest known depression is the Mariana Trench.

11. Sec. 2 Forces of Change The earth is composed of three layers- the core, the mantle, and the crust. The earth is composed of three layers- the core, the mantle, and the crust. The inner core is made up of iron and nickel under enormous pressure. The inner core is made up of iron and nickel under enormous pressure. The crust is broken into more than a dozen great slabs of rock called plates that float on the partially melted layer in the mantle. The crust is broken into more than a dozen great slabs of rock called plates that float on the partially melted layer in the mantle. Many scientists believe that the slabs used to be a supercontinent called Pangaea. Many scientists believe that the slabs used to be a supercontinent called Pangaea.

12. Pangaea broke apart and drifted. Pangaea broke apart and drifted. This theory is called continental drift. This theory is called continental drift. Plate movement changes the face of the planet in several ways. Plate movement changes the face of the planet in several ways. They can push up mountains, cause volcanoes, produce earthquakes, and create trenches. They can push up mountains, cause volcanoes, produce earthquakes, and create trenches. All of these activities are called plate tectonics. All of these activities are called plate tectonics.

13. Internal Forces of Change Mountains are formed when two giant continental plates collide. Mountains are formed when two giant continental plates collide. They can also be formed when a heavy sea plate collides into a continental plate and subduction occurs. They can also be formed when a heavy sea plate collides into a continental plate and subduction occurs. Folds and faults occur when moving plates grind against one another. Folds and faults occur when moving plates grind against one another. Tension builds up along lines as the plates stick. Tension builds up along lines as the plates stick. The strain becomes so intense that the rocks snap and shift. The strain becomes so intense that the rocks snap and shift.

14. Disastrous earthquakes often occur along the Ring of Fire, one of the most earthquake-prone areas on the planet. Disastrous earthquakes often occur along the Ring of Fire, one of the most earthquake-prone areas on the planet. The Ring of Fire is a zone of earthquake and volcanic activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific plate meets the continental plates. The Ring of Fire is a zone of earthquake and volcanic activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific plate meets the continental plates.

15. External Forces of Change External forces also change the earth’s surface. External forces also change the earth’s surface. Physical weathering occurs when large masses of rock are physically broken down into smaller pieces. Physical weathering occurs when large masses of rock are physically broken down into smaller pieces. Wind erosion can be harmful, such as during the Dust Bowl, or helpful by forming large deposits of mineral-rich soil. Wind erosion can be harmful, such as during the Dust Bowl, or helpful by forming large deposits of mineral-rich soil.

16. Glaciers, large bodies of ice that slowly move across the land, are another cause of erosion. Glaciers, large bodies of ice that slowly move across the land, are another cause of erosion. Sheet glaciers are flat, broad sheets of ice that cover most of Greenland and all of Antarctica. Sheet glaciers are flat, broad sheets of ice that cover most of Greenland and all of Antarctica. Each year advance and recede a few feet. Each year advance and recede a few feet. Mountain glaciers are located in high mountain valleys and are much more common. Mountain glaciers are located in high mountain valleys and are much more common. Fast-moving water is the most significant cause of erosion. Fast-moving water is the most significant cause of erosion.

17. Sec. 3 Earth’s Water The total amount of water on the earth does not change. The total amount of water on the earth does not change. The regular movement of water is called the water cycle. The regular movement of water is called the water cycle. Freshwater makes up a very small percentage of Earth’s water. Freshwater makes up a very small percentage of Earth’s water. The four oceans are the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and the Arctic. The four oceans are the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and the Arctic. The Pacific is the largest and the deepest. The Pacific is the largest and the deepest.

18. Seas, gulfs, and bays are smaller bodies of saltwater partially enclosed by land. Seas, gulfs, and bays are smaller bodies of saltwater partially enclosed by land. 97% of the earth’s water is too salty to be used for drinking, farming, or manufacturing. 97% of the earth’s water is too salty to be used for drinking, farming, or manufacturing. Certain countries in Southwest Asia & North Africa use the process of desalination because other freshwater sources are so scarce. Certain countries in Southwest Asia & North Africa use the process of desalination because other freshwater sources are so scarce.

19. Freshwater Less than 1% of the earth’s water supply is fresh and available for human consumption. Less than 1% of the earth’s water supply is fresh and available for human consumption. Lakes are bodies of water surrounded by land. Lakes are bodies of water surrounded by land. Most are freshwater but some are the saltwater remnants of ancient seas. Most are freshwater but some are the saltwater remnants of ancient seas. Most large urban areas began as settlements along the shores of lakes and rivers. Most large urban areas began as settlements along the shores of lakes and rivers.

20. Groundwater comes from rain and melted snow that filters through the soil and from water that seeps into the ground from lakes and rivers. Groundwater comes from rain and melted snow that filters through the soil and from water that seeps into the ground from lakes and rivers. Wells and springs tap into groundwater. Wells and springs tap into groundwater.