1. Cultural patterns 1. Time I. Edward T. Hall 
4 distinguishing features (dimensions):
1. Time
Polychronous cultures
Monochronous cultures
- people do one thing after the other
- people do things simultaneously
- time is very important
- time schedules are not so important
 punctuality
 People are notoriously unpunctual
 making plans
 keeping to plans
- job/work is very important
- people are very important
 family/friends/business partners
- more short-term relationships
- more life-long relationships
- Work time is clearly separable
from personal time
- Work time is not clearly separable
from personal time
© DS

2. 2. Context  characterizes the way in which information is transmitted
low context
high context
- a lot of information is embedded in the context
the majority of the information
is explicitly communicated
in the verbal message
 feelings, thoughts and information are
not explicitly expressed, but also through a variety
of contexts, such as voice tone, body language,
facial expressions, eye contact, speech patterns,
use of silence, past interactions, status, common
friends, etc. The message is more implicit.
the same message can be communicated
through a variety of nonverbal gestures such as
a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown.
e.g. an apology must be clearly
articulated
- high context communication assumes a prior
relationship, i.e. we are members of a
common culture, family etc.
 people care for good relationships
 conflicts must be resolved before work can progress
business relationships depend on trust and build slowly
- few rules are given and information is accessed
through informal networks
© DS

3. 3. Space
 refers to the distance people need for the protection of their privacy
If people come too close, they can offend other people's privacy
Cultures that need more (private) space
Cultures that need less (private) space
e.g. Germany (big 'bubble' needed)
e.g. Mediterranean countries (small 'bubble')
 people have distinctive places
which they call "mine" and
don't want them to be "disturbed"
 large rooms, few if any partitions
 managers interspersed with
employees
 closed doors
 private offices and partitions
 minimal interruptions and disruption
 permission needed to enter
private space
 no touching without agreement
© DS

4. 4. Information Cultures with slow flow of information
Cultures with fast flow of information
Information is planed carefully and
therefore flows slowly
polychronous, high context cultures
monochronous, low context cultures
© DS

5. 1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
II. Geert Hofstede 
5 distinguishing features (dimensions):
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
extent to which inequalities of power and wealth are commonly accepted
Cultures with low PDI
Cultures with high PDI
- less difference in incomes
- big difference in incomes
tax laws support equitable
distribution of income
tax laws support high incomes
- employees expect to take part
in decision-making
- employees expect directives and rules
- tendency to delegate tasks
and responsibility
- tendency to centralize decision-making
and resonsibility
- ideal boss: good democrat
- ideal boss: kind/benevolent autocrat
- co-determination
- autocracy
high dependence of employees
from their superiors/ senior staff
© DS

6. 2. Individuality Index (individuality versus collectivism - IDV)
Cultures with high IDV
Cultures with low IDV
people from birth onwards are integrated
into strong, cohesive in-groups, which
throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect
them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty
- ties between individuals are loose
- everyone is expected
to look after themselves
and their her immediate family
- great emphasis on groups,
people think more in terms of "we"
- emphasis on individual goals,
which are more important than
the group ("Selbstverwirklichung")
- harmony and loyalty within a company/group
is very important and should always be
maintained, confrontation should be avoided
- "I" distinctive from other people
 China: - never disagree with
someone's opinion in public
- people emphasize
their success/achievements in job
or private wealth and aim to reach
more and/or a better job position
discussion in private atmosphere
to avoid "loss of face"
- saying "no" would also mean
to destroy the harmony in the group
- personal freedom is more important
than equality
other expressions must be used
The well-being of the company/groups/
society is more important than
individual freedom.
© DS

7. competitive conflict behaviour
3. Masculinity Index (masculinity versus femininity - MAS)
Cultures with high MAS
Cultures with low MAS
dominant values:
performance and success
dominant values:
quality of life and care for others
self-assertion/resolution
(Durchsetzungsvermögen)
willingness to adapt
(Anpassungsbereitschaft)
career/ambition
quality of life
performance
sensitivity/empathy
live to work
work to live
competition and
competitive conflict behaviour
cooperation/compromising,
strive for consensus
analytical approach to
problem-solving
intuitive approach to
problem-solving
big and fast are beautiful
Small and slow are beautiful
© DS

8. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
extent to which people feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations
Cultures with high UAI
Cultures with low UAI
(cultures which avoid uncertainty)
(cultures which accept uncertainty)
- desire for detailed rules and their control
- aversion to rules
- resistance against change/innovation
- open for new things and change
- people tend to worry about the future
- little worries about the future
- higher demand for details in contracts
- avoidance of too many rules and formalities
- expert and specialist knowledge are
accepted
- acceptance of generalist knowledge
and common sense
- formalization and standardization
- flexible organisation and work environment
© DS

9. 5. Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation (LTO)
Cultures with high LTO
Cultures with low LTO
- society plans sustainably
and respects tradition
- tradition and sustainable development
are not so important
- strong work ethic
- short-term benefits are welcome
- development is sometimes slow
- change is welcome and
may happen rapidly
© DS