1. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Second Canadian Edition Vasta, Younger, Adler, Miller, Ellis Prepared by: Mowei Liu

2. Chapter 16 Gender-Role Development and Sex Differences

3. Learning Objectives Learning Objective 16.1 Understand four theoretical approaches to gender development.Learning Objective 16.1 Understand four theoretical approaches to gender development. Learning Objective 16.2 Describe physical, cognitive, and social/personality sex differences that have been found.Learning Objective 16.2 Describe physical, cognitive, and social/personality sex differences that have been found. Learning Objective 16.3 Understand the role of biological influences in the development of sex differences.Learning Objective 16.3 Understand the role of biological influences in the development of sex differences. Learning Objective 16.4 Understand how society, parents, peers, and the self contribute to gender-role socialization.Learning Objective 16.4 Understand how society, parents, peers, and the self contribute to gender-role socialization. Learning Objective 16.5 Trace the development of gender- role knowledge and behaviour.Learning Objective 16.5 Trace the development of gender- role knowledge and behaviour. Learning Objective 16.6 Discuss the development of sexual relationships and behaviour.Learning Objective 16.6 Discuss the development of sexual relationships and behaviour.

4. Gender (sex): Refers to the biological maleness or femaleness of an individualGender (sex): Refers to the biological maleness or femaleness of an individual Sex difference: An observed difference between males and femalesSex difference: An observed difference between males and females Gender-role: Refers to a pattern of behaviours that are considered appropriate for a female or male in a particular cultureGender-role: Refers to a pattern of behaviours that are considered appropriate for a female or male in a particular culture Sex typing: The process by which children develop a gender roleSex typing: The process by which children develop a gender role Gender-Related Definitions

5. Theories of Gender-Role Development and Sex Differences Evolutionary and biological approachesEvolutionary and biological approaches –Evolutionary approaches: Sex differences reflect the different reproductive challenges faced by mails and females in our ancestral past –Psychobiological: Genes and hormones set gender-role development in motion; the environment completes the process Sociocultural approachesSociocultural approaches –Gender roles develop as children interact with their social and cultural environment.

6. Cognitive-DevelopmentalCognitive-Developmental –Stage theory suggests that children develop: Gender identification: The ability to categorize themselves and others as male or femaleGender identification: The ability to categorize themselves and others as male or female Gender stability: The knowledge that gender does not change with ageGender stability: The knowledge that gender does not change with age Gender constancy: The notion that gender is a fixed part of ourselves Gender constancy: The notion that gender is a fixed part of ourselves –Information processing models focus on concepts such as: Gender schema – Cognitive representation of the characteristics of being either male or femaleGender schema – Cognitive representation of the characteristics of being either male or female Gender script – Cognitive representation of a familiar routine or activity that is usually only associated with one genderGender script – Cognitive representation of a familiar routine or activity that is usually only associated with one gender Theories of Gender-Role Development and Sex Differences

7. Environmental / Learning theoryEnvironmental / Learning theory –Gender role is learned through experience –Sex differences are not inevitable Theories of Gender-Role Development and Sex Differences

8. Some Perceived and Real Sex Differences Physical differencesPhysical differences –Infancy Physiological: Female newborn is healthier, less muscular, more sensitive to painPhysiological: Female newborn is healthier, less muscular, more sensitive to pain Behavioural: Female newborns spend less time awake, and display less motor activity than do male newbornsBehavioural: Female newborns spend less time awake, and display less motor activity than do male newborns –Preschool Sex differences in large and fine motor development are evident. Girls have better fine motor skills. Boys do better in activities that require strength.Sex differences in large and fine motor development are evident. Girls have better fine motor skills. Boys do better in activities that require strength.

9. Cognitive differencesCognitive differences –Language and verbal abilities: Females have better language and verbal abilities than do males Suggestion that mothers provide a stronger language environment for female infantsSuggestion that mothers provide a stronger language environment for female infants –Quantitative abilities: In elementary school, girls are better at computation while boys are better at math reasoning problems; by high school, boys perform better at math Less math anxiety, more effective strategies?Less math anxiety, more effective strategies? Some Perceived and Real Sex Differences

10. Tests of Spatial Ability Figure 16.3 In this task, male and female subjects are asked to mentally rotate the images to determine if they are the same or differentIn this task, male and female subjects are asked to mentally rotate the images to determine if they are the same or different Males outperform females in this spatial taskMales outperform females in this spatial task Some Perceived and Real Sex Differences

11. Social and personality differencesSocial and personality differences –Temperament: Female infants are more likely to regulate their arousal than male infants –Emotion: Girls are generally more emotionally expressive than boys; Girls are better at hiding negative emotions –Self-control: Girls exhibit greater self-control than boys –Activity and exploration: Boys show greater activity and are more likely to explore (rough-and-tumble play) –Prosocial Behaviour: Girls are rated as more helpful, generous, and cooperative than are boys Some Perceived and Real Sex Differences

12. Social and personality differences (cont’d)Social and personality differences (cont’d) –Aggression: Males are more aggressive than are females Aggression is the largest sex differenceAggression is the largest sex difference Males use physical violence whereas females are more likely to use relational or social aggressionMales use physical violence whereas females are more likely to use relational or social aggression –Social Influence: In social influence attempts, boys are more likely to use threats or physical force, girls are more likely to use verbal persuasion Some Perceived and Real Sex Differences

13. Biological Influences on Gender-Role Development Genetic and hormonal influencesGenetic and hormonal influences –Prior to six weeks, the fetus is bipotential Can develop as a female or a male, depending on genetic/hormonal circumstancesCan develop as a female or a male, depending on genetic/hormonal circumstances –XX fetus will develop as a female –XY fetus will develop testes at 6 weeks of age, the testes secrete androgens Androgens organize the fetus as a maleAndrogens organize the fetus as a male –Peripheral organs appear male (internal and external) –Brain is lateralized in a male pattern –Hormone activity in adulthood is set in male pattern

14. Brain lateralizationBrain lateralization –Brain hemispheres are specialized for specific functions Left hemisphere is specialized for language/speechLeft hemisphere is specialized for language/speech Right hemisphere is specialized for quantitative and spatial abilitiesRight hemisphere is specialized for quantitative and spatial abilities –Conclusions are based on brain damage studies as well as imaging studies –Males are more lateralized than females Left hemisphere brain damage produces greater impairment in males than femalesLeft hemisphere brain damage produces greater impairment in males than females Biological Influences on Gender-Role Development

15. Socialization and Gender-Role Development Gender-role socialization occurs at many levels – society, family, peer, and the selfGender-role socialization occurs at many levels – society, family, peer, and the self Differential treatment of males and females fosters the development of different skills, abilities, and attitudesDifferential treatment of males and females fosters the development of different skills, abilities, and attitudes Children spend most of their time with same-sex peers who serve as an important socialization forceChildren spend most of their time with same-sex peers who serve as an important socialization force

16. Children imitate sex-typed behaviours shown by models in the laboratoryChildren imitate sex-typed behaviours shown by models in the laboratory Sources of modelling in real lifeSources of modelling in real life –Parents serve as models –Mass media portrays traditional gender roles for characters on television –Newspaper comics also portray traditional gender roles –Children’s storybooks are another source of modelling of gender roles Socialization and Gender Role Development

17. Understanding Gender Roles and Stereotypes Gender role knowledge develops from about two years of ageGender role knowledge develops from about two years of age Children display gender stability by age 4, and gender consistency by age 5Children display gender stability by age 4, and gender consistency by age 5 Sex-typed labels influence children’s behaviours in terms of preference and performanceSex-typed labels influence children’s behaviours in terms of preference and performance As children grow older, they begin to use gender information to draw inferences about other people and also become more flexible and tolerant of gender role violationsAs children grow older, they begin to use gender information to draw inferences about other people and also become more flexible and tolerant of gender role violations

18. Development of Sexual Relationships and Behaviour Around middle childhood, children become interested in others as future sexual partnersAround middle childhood, children become interested in others as future sexual partners While most children develop heterosexual orientations, a minority of children develop gay, lesbian, or bisexual orientationsWhile most children develop heterosexual orientations, a minority of children develop gay, lesbian, or bisexual orientations Most contemporary research indicates that both biology and the environment are associated with sexual orientation—though the mechanisms by which this occurs remain largely speculativeMost contemporary research indicates that both biology and the environment are associated with sexual orientation—though the mechanisms by which this occurs remain largely speculative

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