1. Gender Role Development I.Introduction A.Categorizing males and females 1.Sex-role standards or stereotypes 2.Cross-cultural trends B.Facts and fictions about sex differences 1.Sex differences that appear to be real 2.Cultural myths II.Developmental trends in sex typing A.Development of Gender Identity 1.Discrimination of male versus female 2.Development of gender constancy B.Acquiring Gender-role Stereotypes C.Development of Gender-typed Behavior III.Theories of sex-typing and gender role development A.The biological approach B.The psychoanalytic approach C.Social learning theory 1.Direct tuition 2.Observational learning D.Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory E.Martin & Halverson’s gender schema theory

2. Categorizing Males and Females Sex-role or gender-role standards: A value, motive, or class of behavior that is considered more appropriate for members of one gender than the other Girls and the expressive role Boys and the instrumental role

3. Gender Typing in Non-Industrialized Societies Sex differences in the socialization of five attributes in 110 non-industrialized societies Percent of societies in which socialization pressures were greater for: AttributeBoysGirls Nuturance 0 82 Obediance 3 35 Responsibility 11 61 Achievement 87 3 Self-Reliance 85 0 Source: Barry, Bacon, & Child (1957)

4. Facts and Fictions About Gender Differences Actual differences between the genders Verbal ability: Girls have greater verbal abilities than boys Visual/Spatial ability: Boys outperform girls in visual/spatial tasks

5. Gender Differences in Visual-Spatial Ability Mental rotation and Water Level tasks:

6. Facts and Fictions About Gender Differences, con’t Actual differences between the genders Verbal ability: Girls have greater verbal abilities than boys Visual/Spatial ability: Boys outperform girls in visual/spatial tasks Mathematical ability Beginning in adolescence, boys show small but consistent advantage in arithmetic reasoning The role of social factors? Aggression: Boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls

7. Facts and Fictions About Gender Differences, con’t Differences that may be real: Activity level: Boys are more physically active than girls Fear, timidity, and risk taking: Girls or more timid than boys Developmental vulnerabilities Boys are more physically vulnerable than girls Boys are more likely to display developmental problems Emotional expressivity: Girls are more emotionally expressive than boys Empathetic sensitivity? Compliance: Girls are more compliant than boys

8. Developmental Trends in Gender Typing Development of the gender concept: Discrimination of males versus females Children’s knowledge of boys versus girls Gender constancy Development of gender-role stereotypes: Timing of gender stereotypes Growth of gender stereotypes during preschool and elementary school How serious are gender-role prescriptions? Flexibility in gender stereotypes Development of gender-typed behavior: Sex appropriateness of play Gender segregation Preference for same sex playmates Why does segregation occur?

9. Social Play and Gender

10. Theories of Gender Typing Biological and Psychoanalytic Biological approach: The role of genetic and hormonal differences Sex-linked constitutional factors and the environment Freud’s Psychoanalytic approach: The process of identification Evidence for and against Freudian theory

11. Theories of Gender Typing Social Learning and Cognitive- Development Social learning theory: Direct tuition Parents, teachers, etc., reinforce sex- appropriate responses Do parents shape behavior? Observational learning Learning of sex-typed attitudes by observing same-sex models Why might children preferentially attend to same-sex models Reinforcement Perception of similarity Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental theory: Cognitive judgments about self precede selective attention or identification Stages of understanding gender Basic gender identity Gender stability Gender consistency Problems with theory

12. Theories of Gender Typing Gender Schema Theory Martin & Halverson’s Gender Schema theory: Information processing theory of sex-typing Children motivated to acquire values consistent with judgments about self Self-socialization begins when children get basic gender identity Development of gender schemas In group / Out group schema Own sex schema Gender schemas as organizers of social information