1. Chapter 15 The images on this CD have been lifted directly, without change or modification, from textbooks and image libraries owned by the publisher, especially from publications intended for college majors in the discipline. Consequently, they are often more richly labeled than required for our purposes. Further, dates for geological intervals may vary between images, and between images and the textbook. Such dates are regularly revised as better corroborated times are established. Your best source for current geological times is a current edition of the textbook, whose dates should be used when differences arise.

2. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Africa  Homo erectus (white arrows) originated in Africa but spread to parts of Eastern Asia, and perhaps into Europe. H. neanderthalensis apparently followed much the same migrations out of Africa as did H. sapiens after them.

3. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.1 Hominid Relationships  Later hominids generally evolved in two directions—one a “robust” line that became extinct about 1 million years ago, and the other the “gracile” line continuing down to modern Homo sapiens (see also figure 14.6).

4. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Table 15.1 Recent Hominid Cultures

5. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Table 15.2 General Terminology for Hominids

6. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.2 “Missing Link” Fallacy  (a) A misreading of primate evolution led to the view that midway between modern apes (such as orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees) and modern humans there existed a direct, intermediate ape that was a blend of ape and human traits. (b) As current phylogeny shows, no such direct intermediate occurs, or is expected. Instead, apes and humans trace their ancestry back along independent lineages to a common ancestor about 6 to 7 million years ago (see also figure 14.6).

7. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.3 Skulls  (a) Homo erectus; (b) a modern human, Homo sapiens. In H. erectus, note the prominent brow ridges (open arrow) and their absence in H. sapiens. Chin (solid arrow) is recessed in H. erectus, and protruding in H. sapiens.

8. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.4 Out of Africa  Various species of gracile hominids originated in Africa and then spread to other continents. This figure summarizes the approximate times and geographic locations of hominid species.

9. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.5 Cave Art  Reindeer art from a cave in France. Cro-Magnon culture.

10. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.6 Mosaic Evolution  Characteristics of modern Homo sapiens include speech, reduced hair, enlarged brain size, bipedal locomotion, and grasping hands. Yet each of these adaptive features arose at different points in our history, not during one single evolutionary burst. Grasping hands arose long ago in monkeys; speech arose recently; other traits arose at other steps.

11. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.7 Skulls of Chimpanzee and Human  (a) Chimpanzee skull. (b) Skull of modern human Homo sapiens. Differences in skull, teeth, and lower jaw are evident. Note the differences in the plane of the face (dashed line) and in the chin (arrow).

12. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.8 Noses  During a visit to China, a street vendor used scissors to cut this silhouette of the author from black paper. The vendor charged extra for the technological adaptation (glasses) and biological adaptation (large northern European nose).

13. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.9 Human Body Types  Humans adapted to cold climates are often lateral in build; those adapted to warm climates tend to have a linear build. (a) Inuit from the Arctic (under five feet tall). (b) Nilote of near equatorial Africa (over six feet tall).

14. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.10 Speech and Symbolic Language  (a) Chimpanzee, adult. The language of a signing chimp is here translated into the English words. (b) Human, 21 months of age. The spoken words are shown. (c) Human, 6 months later than (b). The actions or prompts of the interrogators are not included. (From Bickerton 1990.)

15. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.11 Replacement of H. erectus by H. sapiens  (a) Multiregional Theory proposes that after H. erectus dispersed to various geographic regions, it continued to evolve in place, producing modern humans. (b) The Out-of-Africa Theory proposes that after H. erectus dispersed to various geographic regions, H. sapiens arose in Africa, then also dispersed to other geographic regions, displacing H. erectus as it spread.

16. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.12 Human Colonization of the New World  The most likely routes were through Beringia via the coastline or inland via a land corridor that opened in the glacial ice sheets. Other, although more speculative, routes include a possible Pacific crossing or an Atlantic crossing. (After Campbell and Loy.)

17. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE 15.13 Human Variation and Relatedness  Based on genetic similarities, the various ethnic groups of humans can be compared for their closest human relationships and nested together accordingly.