1. Methods of Research & Stats

2. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of:
curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
Psychology 7e in Modules

3. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. 7
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
Psychology 7e in Modules

4. Example Theory: low self-esteem contributes to depression.
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
Example Theory: low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
Example Hypothesis: People with low self- esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Psychology 7e in Modules

6. Research Observations
Describe Behavior
Example Research: Administer tests of self- esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
Predict circumstances
Control Behavior
Psychology 7e in Modules

7. Research Process
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Methods

9. Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Intensive investigation of one or more participants.
Use of diaries, tests and interviews to conclude research.
Genie
Advantages?
Disadvantages?

10. Naturalistic Observation
Observe subject in natural setting.
52 Psychology Students- 4 days- captured 30 seconds of students’ waking hours every minutes.
28% of time talking with another person
9% working on a computer
Advantages?
Disadvantages?

11. Surveys
A technique for ascertaining the self- reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people
1. How many days a month do you miss school?
2. How many of those
missed days are due to
illness?
3. How many times have
you gone to the doctor in the
last month?

12. Survey Wording Effect Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
Only 27% of Americans approved of “government censorship” of media sex and violence, while 66% approved of “more restrictions on what is shown on TV
“Aid the needy” vs.. “welfare”
Psychology 7e in Modules

13. If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased).
If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
Psychology 7e in Modules

14. Descriptive Methods Basically…
Case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys help to describe behaviors.
Psychology 7e in Modules

15. So many numbers! What do they all mean?!?!?
Stats

16. Stats
Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient is a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) and thus how well either one predicts the other
Ex. Knowing how much ACT scores correlate with school success tells us how well the scores predict school success

17. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(-1.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

18. Little scatter indicates high correlation
Stats
Scatter plots: graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of two variables.
The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.
The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Little scatter indicates high correlation

19. Stats
Positive correlation: two sets of scores tend to rise and fall together (0 to +1)
Negative correlation: two sets of scores relate inversely and as one goes up the other goes down (-1 to 0)
Weak correlation, indicating little relationship, has a coefficient near zero.
Ex. Exercise and weight correlate negatively
Height and weight correlate positively

20. High or low correlation?
Stats
Positive or Negative?
High or low correlation?

21. High or low correlation?
Stats
Your Text Here
Positive or Negative?
High or low correlation?

22. High or low correlation?
Stats
Positive or Negative?
High or low correlation?

23. High or low correlation?
Stats
Positive or Negative?
High or low correlation?

24. NO! CORRELATIONS AND STATISTICS DO NOT PROVE ANYTHING
Stats
Correlation and Causation
Correlations help us predict
Low self-esteem correlates with depression
But does this prove that low self-esteem leads to depression?
NO! CORRELATIONS AND STATISTICS DO NOT PROVE ANYTHING
Correlations show relationships between two variables but nothing more.

25. Illusory correlations
Illusory correlations are the perceptions of a relationship where none exists
When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are more likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief
When we notice random coincidences we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated

26. Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California
lottery games on the same day.
An event that happens to but 1 in 1
billion people occurs about six times
every day, 2000 times a year.

27. Experiments- Key Words Defined
Hypothesis- an educated guess
Variable- any factor that is capable of change
Dependent variable- depends of what takes place during the experiment.
Independent variable- experimental factor/ can vary independently of other factors.
Experimental group- the group to which an independent variable is applied
Control group- the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group, but independent variable not applied.

28. Stats Experimentation
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
Example:
Independent Variable: Breast milk or formula
Dependent Variable: Intelligence age 8
Experiments allow the researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by
1) manipulating the factors of interest
2) holding constant other factors

29. Stats Independent and Dependent Variables
The drug Viagra was approved for use after only 21 clinical trials
In one experiment 329 men with ED were assigned to either the experimental group (Viagra takers) or the control group (placebo takers)
It was a double blind procedure that, in the end, produced 69% of the experimental group attempts at intercourse were successful, compared to 22% for the control group
Viagra worked

30. Stats Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
If a behavior changes when we vary an experimental factor, then we infer the factor is having an effect
Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect

31. Stats
Random assignment is essential to getting quality results and non-bias results
Members who are assigned to research groups are often blind (uninformed) about what treatment, if any, they are receiving
In a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the actual treatment
In such studies researchers can check a treatment’s actual effects apart from the participants’ belief in its healing powers

32. Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
False medication, false information, sham surgery.

33. Below is a comparison of different research methods.
Psychology 7e in Modules

36. Ask and define the question.
Gather information and resources through observation.
Form a hypothesis.
Perform one or more experiments and collect and sort data.
Analyze the data.
Interpret the data and make conclusions that point to a hypothesis.
Formulate a "final" or "finished" hypothesis.