1. Chapter 12
Changing Concepts of the Body: An Overview of Sport and Play in Nineteenth-Century America
Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. A Changing America 19th century: a time of rapid change
Perspectives of changes: demographic, technological, modernization, and philosophical
Demographic change: America a big “melting pot”
variety of peoples and cultures

3. A Changing America: Technology
Technological revolution
Telegraph lines, railroads, steamboats
Caused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyle
Increased the level of literacy
Mass production

4. Changing Philosophy: Emphasis on Material World
Changes were a product of changing philosophy (metaphysics)
awareness of the material aspects of life (focus on the here and now)
Manifested by the use of technology to make life better
Movement from country to city (urbanization)
Use of rationality to learn to live better
Use of philosophy to understand world

5. Technological Revolution
1820s: cities grew faster than the countryside
Telegraph lines and railroads
Steamboats
Caused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyle
Increased level of literacy allowed technology to improve
communication, scientific information

6. Technology and the Rise of Sport
Mass production produced cheap athletic equipment
Sewing machine produced more uniforms
Development of rubber produced balls
Electricity produced more leisure time
Cameras, telephone, typewriter increased coverage of sporting events
Automobile allowed increased travel

7. Technology and the Rise of Sport
Electrophotographic investigation showing a series of consecutive images of a harness racing horse in motion by Edward Muybridge.
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
An example of a Muybridge “moving picture”

8. Transcendentalism The mind and body are one
Action is more important that contemplation
Importance of physicality and the desire to live in the natural world
Ralph Waldo Emerson ( )
Henry David Thoreau ( )

9. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Origin of Species
All living things developed from a few simple forms
Our physical selves are a consequence of our environment
Our ability to think is a product of our biology and not a special gift
Darwin’s work legitimized the use of senses and the power of reason to understand the material world

10. Charles Darwin Charles Darwin
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

11. Pragmatists Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914)
We come to know ideas through our senses
Use the methods of science to discover the nature of the universe
Williams James ( )
Truth is relative to the individual
No division between mind and body—training both are important

12. Rise of Sport in America
Culture became urban and industrial
American adults became fond of participating in recreational activities
Cultural revolution caused sport to change along with everything else

13. Justification for Sport
Emerged through religion
Attitudes about religion and sport changed
Development of “muscular Christianity”
Competitiveness became desirable
Sport viewed as “man builder”
Health issues associated with living in the city
Attitudes toward participation in sport changed

14. Muscular Christianity
Attitude about physicality developed in England (early 1800s)
Effected the popularity of sport in America
Believed physical strength was godly
Overcoming weakness was Christian and moral
Sport activities viewed as effort to be good Christian
Associated godliness with manliness
Sport developed “manly” qualities

15. Development of Sports
Some sports we enjoy in the 20th century were developed in the 19th century
Certain sports created institutions which shaped organization of subsequent sports
Horse and harness racing, baseball, rowing, boxing, and track and field

16. Harness Racing Harness Racing
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
Harness Racing

17. Horse Racing
First race to capture the hearts of Americans was in 1823: The great North-South horse race
Eclipse, representing the North
Henry, representing the South
Eclipse defeated Henry in front of 60,000 spectators

18. Horse Racing: Eclipse American Eclipse
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

19. Ball games: Cricket, Baseball, and Football
Captured the hearts of Americans in early to mid-1800s
Not easily accepted because Americans enjoyed individual sports
Cricket
Unpopular in America
English game was more formalized, competitive, organized
Associated with gambling
Not exactly “manly”

20. Baseball Dominated cricket by 1855
Evolved from games of “rounders,” “town ball”
Played as early as 1734 at Harvard
Alexander Cartwright developed formal rules

21. Baseball Growth and competition caused a need for consistent rules
1858: First formal rules established
1871: National Association of Professional Players formed
Men began to play baseball for money

22. Baseball
Tobacco label showing Red Stocking Baseball Team, Game in Progress, ca. 1869
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

23. Football Derived from soccer and rugby
Characterized by violent nature of the sport
London Football Association
Established rules and format
1873: Intercollegiate Association for Football was formed
Walter Camp the “father” of American football

24. Amateurism—and Rowing
Popular definition: An amateur is one who competes for the love of the sport and receives no money
Actual movement in the U.S. developed in the 1860s and 1870s, when upper-class athletes refused to compete against middle-class and lower-class counterparts (class warfare)
Example: Wealthy young men who rowed for social diversion did not want to compete against (and lose to) lower-class watermen who rowed for a living
1872 regatta excluded those who had ever rowed for money or depended on rowing for their livelihood

25. Race between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell
Crew, Race Between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
Race between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell

26. Amateurism Amateurism different by location
Britain: Athletes separated by social class
American: Athletes separated by economics
Concept is no longer accepted as a valid distinction between athletes, but concept has dominated many American sports

27. Amateurism—and Track and Field
Gatherings known as the Caledonian Games included athletic competition
Events included running races, high jump and long jump, dancing, and precursors to modern hammer throw and shot put
Popular but not amateur

28. Amateurism—and Track and Field
New York Athletic Club formed in 1868
Emphasis on athletics in conjunction with the concept of amateurism
Many similar clubs were formed
Amateur Athletic Union was formed in 1888 to eliminate disputes between clubs regarding amateurism and to sponsor national championships
By 1890s, AAU had control of all U.S. amateur competition