1. Le Belle Epoch

2. Table of Contents (T. O. C.)
Nation Building, Internal Conflict, and Political Tensions/Reform
General Politics in Le Belle Epoch
German Unification
Italian Unification
The Paris Commune
British Prosperity and Political Discontent
Social, Economic, Artistic, Technological, and Intellectual/Scientific Changes in Le Belle Epoch
Social Changes in Le Belle Epoch
Economics during Le Belle Epoch
Art During Le Belle Epoch
Technological Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Intellectual/Scientific Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Literature Changes During Le Belle Epoch

3. Nation Building, Internal Conflict, and Political Tensions/Reform

4. General Politics in Le Belle Epoch
Governments often used republicanism.
Mass communication was used to influence public opinion.
Most countries were controlled by a ruling elite and other large groups.
This use of mass politics by these groups often antagonized minority groups and outsiders, which created conflict.
Despite this, there was democratic reform and the creation of the welfare state.

5. Kaiser Wilhelm I
German Unification

6. German Unification Architect of the German Empire: Otto Von Bismarck
Sought dominance over Austria
Realpolitik: The ends justify the means
Key Beliefs: Take control over nationalism, liberal reform, and wars
Enacted social welfare programs
Led the kulturkampf against the Catholic church in order to preserve unity in the empire but this ultimately failed.
The only reforms Bismarck was able to get away with from this was state control of education and civil laws governing marriage.
“…The great decisions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions—that was the mistake of —but by iron and blood.” --- Bismarck’s first speech as minister

7. The less people know about how sausages and laws are made, the better they’ll sleep at night.
Never believe in anything until it has been officially denied.
I am bored. The great things are done. The German Reich is made.
A generation that has taken a beating is always followed by a generation that deals one.
Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans will provoke the next war.

8. German Unification (con’t)
The Danish War

9. German Unification (con’t)
The Austro-Prussian War

10. German Unification (con’t)
North German Confederation
Led to greater support for unification.
Dominated by Prussia
Ems Dispatch
Leopold von Hohenzalleran was asked to take the Spanish throne after a revolt
French protest, his name was retracted, French ask German Kaiser to apologize
Telegram was doctored by Bismarck to make it seem like a German offense toward Napoleon III, which led to…

11. German Unification (con’t)
The Franco-Prussian War
Treaty of Frankfurt [1871]

12. The German Empire Is Finally Established!

13. Italian Unification

14. Italian Unification
The Carbonari led insurrections for unification. Even though they were ineffective, they created a spirit of nationalism in Italy.
Count Camillo Cavour was elected Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852
He believed that economic and material progress would lead to a large, unified Italy.

15. Italian Unification (con’t)
Cavour used the Crimean War to get involved in European politics. This impressed Napoleon III. The two later plotted to instigate a war against Austria.
War with Austria
France & Piedmont defeated Magenta.
Revolution broke out in Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna provinces of the papal states. These countries later united with Piedmont.
Austria ceded Lombardy, but not Venetia.

16. Italian Unification (con’t)
Guiseppe Garibaldi led the campaigns that overran Sicily, and all of the southern peninsula except for the area around Rome.
Both Garibaldi’s possessions and Cavour’s possessions have been combined to create a united Kingdom of Italy.
Two other territories have been added to the kingdom:
1866 Venetia (Austro-Prussian War)
1870 Patrimony of St. Peter (French troops withdrawn due to the Franco-Prussian War)

17. The Kingdom of Italy is finally established!

18. The Paris Commune

19. The Paris Commune
September 1870: France defeated at the battle of Sedan
Napoleon III abdicates the throne, third republic is established
Capitol of republic was in Versailles, NOT Paris.
Parisians angered by this
Led to opposition of government policies and an attempt to restore order
Led to Paris Commune Revolt, which lasted from March 18th to May 28th 1871
Entire city of Paris barricaded and was declared independent from France

20. Civil War (Bloody Week)

21. The Paris Commune (con’t)
The Communards attempted to make reforms in their short time of rule:
Trade Unions
Workers to reopen defunct factories
State-run schools, as opposed to church-run schools
Schools for girls
Day nurseries near factories for working mothers
The Commune was “a nation of relatively independent, radically democratic enclaves”. Its defeat served as a symbol of “the protection of property”.

22. And Political Discontent
British Prosperity
And Political Discontent

23. Great Britain
Great Britain enjoyed much economic success in the 1850s to the 1870s.
Growth and free trade
Shipbuilding transitioned from wood to iron
British trade was dominant in the world; colonial holdings doubled
Engineers built railroads all across the world.

24. Great Britain (con’t)
The 1832 Reform Bill was seen as the last measure of political reform
1860s: Middle & Working classes have grown, & they wanted the franchise expanded.
The question of new reform led to a realignment of political parties:
The Tories (Conservative; led by Benjamin Disraeli)
The Whigs (Liberal; led by William Gladstone)

25. Great Britain (con’t) The 2nd Reform Bill:
1866: Gladstone introduces moderate reform; crushed by conservatives
1867: Radical reform bill introduced by Disraeli which passed w/ liberal support.
Components of the bill:
Franchise extended by 88%
Vote given to landowners, & renters who paid a minimum of £10 for a room.
Eliminated smaller, less developed boroughs that had a population of less than 10,000
Extra representation for other cities like Manchester and Liverpoool.

26. Major Players in British Politics

27. William Gladstone Liberal Prime Minister
Served in , , 1886, and
Active legislator/reformer, made populist speeches, supported “Little England” foreign policy.
Goals:
Decrease public spending
Education Bill of free elementary education for all children
Competitive exams for civil service
Legalize unions and the right to strike (1871)
Secret ballots for elections (1872)
Promote peace to reduce taxation and spending, and to promote trade.
Reduce tariffs.
Referred to as “Gladstone’s Great Ministry”

28. William Gladstone
Accomplishments during the “Great Ministry” ( ):
1868 Army reform: Banned peacetime flogging
Disestablishment Act of 1869: Irish Catholics didn’t have to pay taxes to the Anglican Church in Ireland.
Irish Land Act of 1870: Prevented absentee Protestant landowners from evicting their Irish Catholic tenants without compensation.
University Test Act of 1871: non-Anglicans could attend British universities.
1872: The settlement of the CSS Alabama claims [from the U.S Civil War] in U.S.’s favor.
1873: Legislation was passed that restructured the High Courts.

29. William Gladstone The 2nd Ministry (1880-1885):
1884 Reform Bill:
Franchise extended to farmers.
Gave counties the same franchise as the boroughs
Added 6 million to the number of those who could vote in parliamentary elections
Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885:
Changes the seats in the House of Commons to reflect demographic changes
The 3rd Ministry (1886):
Introduced Irish Home Rule Bill
Split the liberals and was swiftly defeated
The 4th Ministry ( ):
1893: Irish Home Rule Bill reintroduced
Created an Irish Parliament, but did NOT provide independence
Catholics liked the bill while the Irish Protestants detested it.

30. Benjamin Disraeli Conservative Prime Minister
Served in 1868 and
A brilliant debater, a strong imperialist, and had the respect of The Queen.
Supported the “Greater England” policy.
Accomplishments through The 2nd Reform Bill:
Give the Tories control over the reform process
Encourage the labor class to vote for the conservatives

31. Benjamin Disraeli Disraeli’s Tory Democracy:
Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875:
Government defines housing standards and provides housing for the working class
Public Health Act of 1875:
Placed standards on public and private health/well-being and allowed for modern sewer system in the big cities
Climbing Boys Act of 1875:
Chimney sweeper licenses can only be given to adults
Conspiracy And Protection of Property Act of 1875:
Gave new protection to trade unions and allowed for picket lines.
Gladstone ministry did provide for workers rights but not to this extent.
Employers And Workmen Act of 1878:
Employers could be sued by workers if they broke legal contracts.

32. The Irish Question

33. The Irish Question
Irish nationalists sought home rule from the late 1860s onward.
The Gladstone Ministry extended some rights through the Irish Land Act & Home Rule Bills, but these were accompanied by a Coercion Act, which sought to restore law and order in Ireland.
Charles Stewart Parnell was the leader of the Irish Home Rule Movement.
Parnell organized Irish members of Parliament into one party that voted as a unit.
The issue of Ireland created divisions within political parties on normal British domestic policy. This led to the split of the Liberal Party and the rise of the Labor Party.

34. Social, Economic, Artistic, Technological, and Intellectual/Scientific Changes in Le Belle Epoch

35. Social Changes in Le Belle Epoch
The age of the Middle Class (not the white collar workers)
Created the Status Quo
Individualism is not as expressed as in past times
More emphasis on materialism & the standard of living increased
Populations shifts:
60 million migrated from Europe from :
Emigration to The United States, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, & Canada
Europe encompassed 1/5 of world population (450 million by 1914)
Cities and urban life grew
More leisure; parks and dance & concert halls created

36. Social Changes in Le Belle Epoch
Smaller families, improvements in health & living conditions
Gender roles became more distinct and Enlightened ideas were used to raise kids.
Education
Many West Europeans became literate
Liberals/Conservatives favored education because they believed it promoted orderly political behavior and a more productive labor force.
Nationalism was highly expressed, Xenophobia soon followed.

37. Social Changes: Judaism & Anti-Semitism
Most have been liberated due to the Enlightenment.
Famous Jews of this era: Karl Marx, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud
Jews were commonly attributed to money and banking interests, and as finance capitalism changed the European economy, people hurt by such changes became hostile to the Jewish community.
Social Darwinism also was a factor (the thought of a “superior” culture)

38. Social Changes: Judaism & Anti-Semitism
The Dreyfus Affair:
1894: French military documents were found in the garbage can of the German Embassy in Paris.
Jewish Commander Alfred Dreyfus was suspected, tried, and found guilty of treason and was sent to Devil’s Island in French Guiana.
Real culprit was tried and found not guilty in two days.
J’Accuse!
In this open letter published by Émile Zola, the military was accused of mistrial and cover-up.
Zola found guilty of libel, sentenced to a year in prison.
Public opinion was divided:
Those who thought Dreyfus was innocent were anti-clerics, intellectuals, and socialists. Those who thought he was guilty were Catholics, monarchists, and army supporters.

39. Social Changes: Judaism & Anti-Semitism
Dreyfus was given a new trial in 1899
Found guilty again but was given a presidential pardon.
Dreyfus was completely exonerated by 1906.
The divisions growing out of the Dreyfus affair continued to divide France until 1940.
This issue led Austro-Hungarian Theodor Herzl to publish The Jewish State, which called for the creation of a country where Jewish people could live peacefully.
This led to the idea known as Zionism.

40. Social Changes: Feminism
Can work white collar jobs, but still raise the children.
Women gained rights such in legal system, property ownership, divorce and custody of kids
Women also challenged norms such as the traditional male dominated family
Obscenity Laws prevented the publication of articles promoting birth control
Voting rights do not occur until after WWI
Emmeline Pankhurst: Women’s Social and Political Union
Used radical techniques such as arson
Mary Wollstonecraft: Wrote The Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Virginia Woolf: Wrote A Room of One’s Own

41. Economics during Le Belle Epoch
Corporations established the limited liability of investments.
Cartels controlled the prices
Free Trade and Protectionism
New world markets; boom and bust cycle
Keynesian Economics: Spend during economic downturns, save during economic success.
Large amounts of consumerism; Department stores began to emerge in 1870

42. Art During Le Belle Epoch
Impressionism focused on modern life through the painting scenes of the social life and leisured activities of the urban middle and lower middle classes. Important artists: Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, & Edgar Degas
Impressionists were fascinated with light and color.
A Bar at the Folies-Bergère – Édouard Manet 1882

43. Art During Le Belle Epoch
Post-Impressionism built upon impressionism by relating earlier artistic traditions to their work. Form and structure were important in the post-impressionist works.
Important artists: Georges Seurat, Paul Cezanne, Vincent Van Gogh
A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte
Georges Seurat –

44. Art During Le Belle Epoch
Cubism differs from all other western art forms of the past 500 years in that it did not reproduce the appearance of reality. Rather, it used distorted two-dimensional shapes to give “many different perspectives, angles, and views of the object painted as much as possible”. Important artists: Pablo Picasso & Georges Braque
Guernica
Pablo Picasso

45. Technological Changes During Le Belle Epoch
New advancements in technology:
2nd Industrial Revolution
Transition from steam power to electricity and petroleum.
Internal combustion and diesel engines
Germany and The United States surpass Britain as the dominant industrial powerhouses (1900).
New inventions include:
Larger factories Bessemer Steel Skyscrapers Chemicals
Lighted Cities Refrigeration TNT X-Rays
Assembly Lines Cars Steamships Airplanes (1903)
Subways Suburbs Marconi’s Radio
Suez Canal (1869), Panama Canal (1914), Transatlantic Telegraph Cable laid

46. Intellectual/Scientific Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Medicine
Louis Pasteur of France of Joseph Lister of Britain enhanced public awareness of cleanliness in the 1850s.
Medical schools underwent further development.
Science
Core of industrialization
Auguste Comte & Positivism
Father of Sociology
Three stages of the development of human thought:
Physical nature was explained through religion and mysticism.
Metaphysical stage: “abstract principles” are what made nature function.
Positive stage: Nature is explained through observation of phenomena, instead of and without diverting to, an unobservable process

47. Intellectual/Scientific Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Science (con’t)
Charles Darwin
Wrote “On The Origin of Species And Natural Selection”
“Survival of the fittest”; most important concept within the work
Immensely controversial and was widely hated and refuted
Herbert Spencer
Took Darwin’s ideas and formulated new a new idea called Social Darwinism
Stated that competition aids societal growth; this concept was applied to colonization of other peoples and competition between nations.
This in turn hardened the basis for Nationalism & Anti-Semitism, and formed the groundwork for later theories such as Fascism.
Albert Einstein introduces the theory of relativity.
Marie Curie: discovered Radium, and discovered that atoms emitted radioactivity. Has also made other contributions to both chemistry and physics.

48. Intellectual/Scientific Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Sciences (con’t)
William Roentgen discovers X-rays
Other practices developed during this time such as Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, Psychology, etc.
Psychology
Sigmund Freud
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) presented the view that “dreams allow unconscious wishes” that are not accessible in real life to have “freer play in the mind”.
Freud’s theory on the structure of the human mind consists of the conflict between these three entities.
Id: allows for sexual fulfillment
Superego: moral standards established in our personalities by society and culture
Ego: balances the Id and Superego, and lets our personalities deal with inner/outer demands of their existence.

49. Literature Changes During Le Belle Epoch
Realism/Naturalism
These movements completely done away with Romantic ideals
Focused on good/bad aspects of industrial states
Presented the harsh reality of life through the works.
Important writers include Charles Dickens, Emile Zola, George Bernard Shaw, and Leo Tolstoy.