3. To make a chemical bond, atoms Will overlap their outer orbitals

4. The point at which the potential energy is a minimum is called the equilibrium bond distance The degree of overlap is determined by the system’s potential energy equilibrium bond distance

5. 2s These new orbitals are called hybrid orbitals The process is called hybridization What this means is that both the s and one p orbital are involved in bonding to the connecting atoms Formation of sp hybrid orbitals The combination of an s orbital and a p orbital produces 2 new orbitals called sp orbitals.

6. Formation of sp 2 hybrid orbitals

7. Formation of sp 3 hybrid orbitals

8. Hybrid orbitals can be used to explain bonding and molecular geometry

9.  Based on Lewis structures we can know the shape or “geometry” of molecules  VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion  VSEPR, as the name suggests, predicts geometry based on the repulsion of electron pairs (in bonds or by themselves)  Electrons around the central nucleus repel each other. Thus, resulting structures have atoms maximally spread out.

10.  Each shape containing 2-6 peripheral atoms has a name  Sometimes the molecules are represented by AB Y, where Y is the # of peripheral atoms ▪AB 2 = linear ▪AB 3 = planar triangular ▪AB 4 = tetrahedral (tetra = 4 faces) ▪AB 5 = trigonal bipyramidal (2 pyramids) ▪AB 6 = octahedral (octa = 8 faces) ▪Online chartOnline chart

11. Rules for Predicting Molecular Geometry 1. Sketch the Lewis structure of the molecule or ion 2. Count the electron pairs and arrange them in the way that minimizes electron-pair repulsion. 3. Determine the position of the atoms from the way the electron pairs are shared. 4. Determine the name of the molecular structure from the position of the atoms. 5. Double or triple bonds are counted as one bonding pair when predicting geometry.

19. Ammonium – NH 4 + Nitrite – NO 2 - Nitrate – NO 3 - Hydroxide – OH - Hypochlorite – ClO - Chlorite – ClO 2 - Chlorate – ClO 3 - Perchlorate – ClO 4 - Carbonate – CO 3 2- Sulfite – SO 3 2- Sulfate – SO 4 2- Peroxide – O 2 2- Phosphate – PO 4 3- For more lessons, visit www.chalkbored.com www.chalkbored.com Polyatomic ions that you have to memorize (pg 226 of Modern Chem)

20.  NH 4 + It’s AB 4 = tetrahedral NO 3 - It’s AB 3 E = Trigonal Pyrimidal NO 2 - It’s AB 2 E 2 = Angular/bent

22.  1. Cation first, then anion  2. Monatomic cation = name of the element  Ca 2+ = calcium ion  3. Monatomic anion = root + -ide  Cl  = chloride  CaCl 2 = calcium chloride Binary Ionic Compounds:

23. Examples: NaCl ZnI 2 Al 2 O 3 sodium chloride zinc iodide aluminum oxide

24. Complete the names of the following binary compounds: Na 3 Nsodium ________________ KBrpotassium________________ Al 2 O 3 aluminum ________________ MgS_________________________

25. Elements that can have more than one possible charge MUST have a Roman Numeral to indicate the charge on the individual ion. 1+ or 2+ 2+ or 3+ Cu +, Cu 2+ Fe 2+, Fe 3+ copper(I) ion iron(II) ion copper (II) ion iron(III) ion

26. These elements REQUIRE Roman Numerals because they can have more than one possible charge: anything except Group 1A, 2A, Ag, Zn, Cd, and Al (You should already know the charges on these!) Or another way to say it is: Transition metals and the metals in groups 4A and 5A (except Ag, Zn, Cd, and Al) require a Roman Numeral. FeCl 3 (Fe 3+ ) iron (III) chloride CuCl (Cu + ) copper (I) chloride SnF 4 (Sn 4+ ) tin (IV) fluoride PbCl 2 (Pb 2+ )lead (II) chloride Fe 2 S 3 (Fe 3+ )iron (III) sulfide

28. Complete the names of the following binary compounds with variable metal ions: FeBr 2 iron (_____) bromide CuClcopper (_____) chloride SnO 2 ___(_____ ) ______________ Fe 2 O 3 ________________________ Hg 2 S________________________

29. Writing Formulas  Write each ion, cation first. Don’t show charges in the final formula.  Overall charge must equal zero.  If charges cancel, just write symbols.  If not, use subscripts to balance charges.  Use parentheses to show more than one of a particular polyatomic ion.  Use Roman numerals indicate the ion’s charge when needed (stock system)

30. Sodium Sulfate Na + and SO 4 -2 Na 2 SO 4 Iron (III) hydroxide Fe +3 and OH - Fe(OH) 3 Ammonium carbonate NH 4 + and CO 3 –2 (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3

31. Contains at least 3 elements There MUST be at least one polyatomic ion (it helps to circle the ions) *Most polyatomic ions are negatively charged and most are oxyanions – containing oxygen* Examples: NaNO 3 Sodium nitrate K 2 SO 4 Potassium sulfate Al(HCO 3 ) 3 Aluminum bicarbonate or Aluminum hydrogen carbonate

32. Match each set with the correct name: 1. Na 2 CO 3 a) magnesium sulfite MgSO 3 b) magnesium sulfate MgSO 4 c) sodium carbonate 2.Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 a) calcium carbonate CaCO 3 b) calcium phosphate Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 c) calcium bicarbonate

33. Name the following: 1. Na 2 O 2. CaCO 3 3. PbS 2 4. Sn 3 N 2 5. Cu 3 PO 4 6. HgF 2

34. Write the formula: 1. Copper (II) chlorate 2. Calcium nitride 3. Aluminum carbonate 4. Potassium bromide 5. Barium fluoride 6. Cesium hydroxide

35. CH 4 methane BCl 3 boron trichloride CO 2 Carbon dioxide All are formed from two or more nonmetals. Ionic compounds generally involve a metal and nonmetal (NaCl)

36.  Prefix System (binary compounds) 1.Less electronegative atom comes first. 2.Add prefixes to indicate # of atoms. Omit mono- prefix on the FIRST element. Mono- is OPTIONAL on the SECOND element (in this class, it’s NOT optional!). 3.Change the ending of the second element to -ide.

37. PREFIX mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca- NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

38. CCl 4 N 2 O SF 6 carbon tetrachloride dinitrogen monoxide sulfur hexafluoride

39. arsenic trichloride dinitrogen pentoxide tetraphosphorus decoxide AsCl 3 N 2 O 5 P 4 O 10

40. Fill in the blanks to complete the following names of covalent compounds. CO carbon ______oxide CO 2 carbon _______________ PCl 3 phosphorus _______chloride CCl 4 carbon ________chloride N 2 O_____nitrogen _____oxide

43. 1. Dinitrogen monoxide 2. Potassium sulfide 3. Copper (II) nitrate 4. Dichlorine heptoxide 5. Chromium (III) sulfate 6. Iron (III) sulfite 7. Calcium oxide 8. Barium carbonate 9. Iodine monochloride

44. 1. BaI 2 2. P 4 S 3 3. Ca(OH) 2 4. FeCO 3 5. Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 6. I 2 O 5 7. Cu(ClO 4 ) 2 8. CS 2 9. B 2 Cl 4

45.  Acids  Compounds that form H + in water.  Formulas usually begin with ‘H’.  In order to be an acid instead of a gas, binary acids must be aqueous (dissolved in water)  Ternary acids are ALL aqueous  Examples:  HCl (aq) – hydrochloric acid  HNO 3 – nitric acid  H 2 SO 4 – sulfuric acid

46. No Oxygen  with Oxygen An easy way to remember which goes with which… “In the cafeteria, you ATE something ICky”

48. HBr (aq)HBr (aq) H 2 CO 3H 2 CO 3 H 2 SO 3H 2 SO 3 No oxygen, -ideNo oxygen, -ide Has oxygen, -ateHas oxygen, -ate Has oxygen, -iteHas oxygen, -ite  hydrobromic acid  carbonic acid  sulfurous acid

49. hydrofluoric acidhydrofluoric acid sulfuric acidsulfuric acid nitrous acidnitrous acid 2 elements2 elements 3 elements, -ic3 elements, -ic 3 elements, -ous3 elements, -ous  HF (aq)  H 2 SO 4  HNO 2  H + F-  H + SO 4 2-  H + NO 2 -

50.  HI (aq)  HCl  H 2 SO 3  HNO 3  HIO 4

51. Nomenclature Summary Flowchart