1. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War

2. The U.S. Transformed by War The U.S. Transformed by War –“Big-Picture” Effects of the War  Unprecedented level of government control over people’s lives  Roles of many women transformed both at work and at home  Nation’s industrial landscape transformed  U.S. thrust into a position of global leadership that it has maintained ever since 2

3. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War on Two Fronts War on Two Fronts –Containing the Japanese  Japanese Victories: Soon after Pearl Harbor, the Japanese seemed unstoppable in the Pacific. Shortly after the Peral Harbor attack, Japanese planes struck American airbases in Manila. Allied possessions in the Pacific then quickly fell in the winter and spring of 1941-1942: U.S.: Guam (Dec. 10, 1941); Wake Island (Dec. 23, 1941); Philippines (May 8, 1942) U.S.: Guam (Dec. 10, 1941); Wake Island (Dec. 23, 1941); Philippines (May 8, 1942) Britain: Hong Kong (Dec. 25, 1941); Fortress of Singapore (Feb. 15, 1942); Burma (late April/early May) Britain: Hong Kong (Dec. 25, 1941); Fortress of Singapore (Feb. 15, 1942); Burma (late April/early May) Netherlands: Dutch East Indies (March 9, 1942) Netherlands: Dutch East Indies (March 9, 1942)  American Strategy: Two-pronged approach in the Pacific The Army force led by General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964 would sweep north from Australia through New Guinea to the Philippines. The Army force led by General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964 would sweep north from Australia through New Guinea to the Philippines. The Marine force led by Admiral Chester Nimitz would move west from Hawaii through “island-hopping” to mainland Japan. The Marine force led by Admiral Chester Nimitz would move west from Hawaii through “island-hopping” to mainland Japan. 3

4. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War on Two Fronts War on Two Fronts –Containing the Japanese  Battle of Coral Sea: Just northwest of Australia, the Allies had their first victory against the Japanese navy on May 7-8, 1942.  Battle of Midway: Northwest of Hawaii, American forces won a decisive battle four-day battle (June 4-7, 1942) against the Japanese at the Battle of Midway, despite terrible losses. Most significantly, the U.S. destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers while losing just one (the U.S.S. Yorktown). American code-breakers had figured out where the Japanese were going to attack, and thus were able to set up an ambush. The crushing defeat at Midway put the Japanese navy at a disadvantage in airpower from which it never recovered.  Solomon Islands: In August 1942, U.S. forces—alongside those from Australia and New Zealand—invaded three of the Solomon Islands near New Guinea—Gavutu, Tulagi, and Guadalcanal—beginning the arduous and bloody process of moving toward the Philippines. 4 Yorktown damaged

5. World War II in the Pacific Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War 5

6. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War on Two Fronts War on Two Fronts –Holding Off the Germans  Cross-Channel Invasion: General George C. Marshall (1880-1859) supported a plan for a cross-Channel invasion in Spring 1943. The Soviets, who bore the brunt of the fighting against the Nazis in the East, wanted the invasion right away to provide some relief. But the British wanted to launch offensives on the edges of the Nazi empire: from North Africa into southern Europe. FDR backed the British plan, seeing a secured North Africa as a stage for an invasion of Western Europe from the south.  Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969): This little-known general distinguished himself in the invasion of Vichy France’s North African territories by U.S. and British forces in November 1942 and the Allied invasion of Sicily in July-August 1943. He then was chosen over Marshall by FDR to command “Operation Overlord”: the invasion of France by Allied forces in June 1944. 6 Eisenhower in late 1943

7. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War on Two Fronts War on Two Fronts –Holding Off the Germans  North Africa Campaign: The Allied effort in North Africa precluded an invasion of France in the spring or summer of 1943, despite angry complaints from Stalin.  Battle of Stalingrad: From Aug. 1942 through Feb. 1943, the Soviets fought a fierce, brutal battle against the Germans in the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in Southern Russia (a gateway to the oil reserves in the Caucus). Hitler committed huge numbers of troops to this battle, and between 500,000 and 850,000 Axis soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured; it could have been over 1 million for the Soviets. The loss of manpower made it impossible for the Germans to carry out their eastern offensive any further.  Italy Invaded: In January 1943, FDR met Churchill in Casablanca in Morocco, and agreed upon an invasion of Italy. On July 9-10, 1943, Allied forces invaded Sicily, capturing the islands within a month, which triggered the collapse of Mussolini’s government. But progress on the mainland was slow, and the Allies did not capture Rome until June 4, 1944. Further delays in invading France angered Stalin even more. 7

8. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 8 German troops undertaking the hated street- by-street urban warfare that characterized the Battle of Stalingrad (Aug. 1942 – Feb. 1943). U.S. troops landing in Sicily on July 10, 1943

9. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 9 World War II in North Africa and Italy: The Allied Counteroffensive, 1942-1943

10. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War on Two Fronts War on Two Fronts –America and the Holocaust  Knowledge of the Holocaust: As early as 1942, federal officials had evidence that the Nazis were rounding up Jews (as well as Poles, homosexuals, and communists) across Europe, and sending them to camps in eastern Germany and Poland for to be systematically killed, and knowledge began to spread to the general public soon thereafter. Despite building pressure to do something, the Allies did nothing even though they were flying bombing missions near Auschwitz by mid-1944. They refused to try to hit the crematoria or rail lines leading up to the camp. And the U.S. refused to admit large numbers of Jewish refugees attempting to flee Europe.  Moral Failure: More forceful action from the U.S. and other Allies definitely would have saved more lives, but the Allied military command consistently said that none of its resources could not be diverted from the aim of winning the war. 10

11. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Prolonged and Arduous Conflict  Unprecedented in Recent History: The U.S. had not experienced such a prolonged and difficult war since it own Civil War in the 1860s. –Prosperity and the Rights of Labor  Depression Lifted: By mid-1941, the main problems of the Depression— unemployment, deflation, and industrial sluggishness—were gone due to the wave of industrial expansion fed by federal money.  Massive Government Spending: War preparation meant the injection of more federal money into the economy than all New Deal programs combined. The federal government’s budget was its highest ever in 1939—$9 billion—but then rose to $100 billion by 1945. The GNP went from $91 billion to $166 billion in 1945, and some personal incomes increased by as much as 100 percent. 11

12. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Prosperity and the Rights of Labor  The American West Benefits: As a launching point for the war with Japan, the West received $40 billion for capital improvements (factories, military and transportation facilities, and power plants) from the federal government. By the end of the war, the West Coast had become the home of the U.S.’s growing aircraft industry and a major shipbuilding area. Los Angeles became a major industrial center as well as home to Hollywood.  Workforce Expansion: The war effort took 15 million people out of the workforce, but the labor force increased by 20 percent by adding people who had previously been viewed as inappropriate for certain positions: the very young, minorities, the elderly, and especially women. 12

13. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Prosperity and the Rights of Labor  Union Membership Boosted: Union membership rose from 10.5 million in 1941 to over 13 million in 1945. Unions received a “maintenance of membership” agreement from the government— meaning all workers entering a workplace were automatically enrolled—in exchange for a “no strike pledge” (although 15,000 work stoppages did take place, mostly as “wildcat” strikes unauthorized by the union).  Public Sentiment: During the early 1940s, public sentiment began to turn against big unions. The Smith-Connally Act was passed in May 1943 over FDR’s veto. It forced union to wait thirty days before striking, and gave the president the right to seize struck war plants. Many state legislatures passed laws to limit union power during this period. 13

14. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Stabilizing the Boom and Mobilizing Production  Office of Price Administration (OPA): The fear of deflation gave way to a fear of inflation as prices rose by 25 percent in the two years after Pearl Harbor. FDR created the OPA in August 1941 to deal with the problem. It succeeded in keeping inflation manageable, but its rationing policies caused considerable resentment, and it could not effectively combat the widespread black market.  Federal Deficit: From 1941 to 1945, the federal government spent $321 billion, which was twice as much as it had spent in its previous 150 years of existence. The debt went from $49 billion in 1941 to $259 billion in 1945. It financed he debt by selling $100 billion in war bonds and through the high income taxes imposed by the Revenue Act of 1942 (which provided for the first payroll deductions). 14

15. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Stabilizing the Boom and Mobilizing Production  War Production Board: In January 1942, FDR created the War Productions Board (WPB) to bring some order and control over the chaotic military purchase process. It never managed to do so—the military branches always found ways to circumvent it— and it also favored large corporations over small businesses. FDR gradually transferred much of its operations to the Office of War Mobilization in the White House. Despite this, the U.S. had indeed become the “arsenal of democracy” by 1944, with an industrial output twice the size of the Axis Powers combined. 15

16. Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War 16 Women workers “trim” transparent noses for A-20J attack bombers at Douglas Aircraft's factory in Long Beach, California, in October of 1942.

17. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Wartime Science and Technology  National Defense Research Committee: The federal government poured $100 million into research for military technology through this body (later called the Office of Scientific Research and Development headed by MIT scientist Vannevar Bush (1890-1974), an early computer researcher.  Axis Edge: Germany especially had superior tanks and mechanized armor, which it perfected during the Spanish Civil War. The Germans also had better submarine technology. Japan had perfected excellent naval-air capacities, as the attack on Pearl Harbor demonstrated. Near the end of the war, the Germans developed V1 and V2 rockets.  Allied Advantage: Techniques of mass production in the U.S. were more efficient than those of the Axis powers; the Allies had more plentiful tanks, aircraft, etc., and by 1942, they were comparable technologically. 17 Vannevar Bush

18. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in Wartime The American Economy in Wartime –Wartime Science and Technology  Sonar: Allied sonar technology—pulses of sound used to detect objects underwater—had become so good by 1943, that it essentially neutralized the German submarine threat in the North Atlantic.  Radar: The creation of “centimetric radar” in 1940 gave the Allies a big advantage. The new radar sent out beams of short wavelength, making the radar more efficient. It could also be miniaturized effectively and installed on airplanes. 18 Centimetric Radar Antenna

19. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The American Economy in The American Economy inWartime –Wartime Science and Technology  Long-Range Bombing: The British and Americans developed bombers, like the Lancaster B1 and the Boeing B17 “Flying Fortress” that could carry 6,000 pounds of bombs 1,300 miles. In March 1942, the Allies installed the Gee navigation system on 80 bombers, which used electronic pulses to help pilots navigate toward targets at night or in bad weather with great accuracy.  Code Breaking: The greatest Allied technological advantage was in code breaking. German and Japanese coded military and diplomatic messages using a device known as the “Enigma Machine.” Improving on a Polish decoding machine, the British computing pioneer Alan Turing created a high-speed device that could decode a German message in hours, not the days as before. Allies maintained a code-breaking advantage throughout the war, which especially helped preparing for the Normandy invasion. 19 B-17 bomber

20. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –African Americans and the War  A. Philip Randolph (1889-1967): This president of the influential Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters union began to agitate in the summer of 1941 for companies receiving government contracts not to discriminate against blacks. He threatened a “March on Washington” to get this, but he called it off when FDR agreed to create the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC).  Wartime Race Riots: Migration from the rural South to industrial cities continued among African Americans. It created better economic opportunity for blacks, but also caused increasing racial tensions. On June 20, 1943, a large race riot in Detroit broke out, leaving 34 people dead (25 were black).  Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): This civil rights organization formed in 1942 to organize sit-in boycotts and boycotts of “whites only” restaurants and movie theaters. 20

21. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –Native Americans and the War  Navajo “Code Talkers”: Roughly 25,000 Indians served during WWII, including “code-talkers,” mostly Navajos who would speak their own language on radio communications, which the enemy could not translate.  Reservation Life: Little war work reached those who stayed on the reservation, and federal subsidies dwindle. The government emphasis on national unity eroded the reestablishment of collective tribal identity that had been legislated with the 1934 Indian Reorganization Indian Act. The director of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, John Collier, resigned in frustration in 1945. 21

22. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –Mexican American War Workers  Mexican Migrants: Large numbers of Mexicans crossed the border to get jobs during the labor shortage in the Southwest and West Coast.  Braceros Program: The American and Mexican governments came up with a program for “guest workers” to cross the border legally to work for a limited period. Many settled on the West Coast and in the Southwest, but others settled in industrial cities like Chicago and Detroit.  “Zoot-Suit Riots”: Many whites became alarmed by the activities of Mexican American teenagers who joined street gangs (pachucos) and wore big, loose jackets with padded shoulders, baggy pants, long watch chains, and broad-rimmed hats; together this ensemble was known as a “zoot suit.” Cloth was being rationed at the time. In June 1943, white sailors from Long Beach invaded a Mexican neighborhood and attacked zoot suiters, ripping off an burning their clothes, causing a four-day riot. 22

23. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 23 Sailors looking for zoot-suiters above; a young Mexican American models a zoot suit to the right. The riots lasted from June 3 through 7, 1943. When Mexican American teens fought back, they were usually arrested.

24. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –The Internment of Japanese Americans  Anti-Japanese Feelings: While people of German descent suffered relatively little persecution in the U.S., much public anger was directed at the Japanese Americans after the Pearl Harbor attack. There were about 127,000 Japanese Americans in the U.S., a third of whom were unnaturalized first-generation immigrants (Issei). Two-thirds were either naturalized or native-born citizens of the U.S. (Nisei). All were suspected of being engaged in conspiracies to help their ancestral homeland (no evidence indicates that any were).  “Relocation Centers”: In Feb. 1942, FDR signed Executive Order 9066 that forcibly moved 100,000 Issei and Nisei from the West Coast into interior “relocation centers,” which were little more than prison camps often located in desert or mountain regions, with no means of gainful employment. The Korematsu Supreme Court decision in 1944 upheld internment; no compensation was given by Congress until the 1980s. 24

25. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War War Relocation Authority Center, Manzanar, CA 25

26. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –Chinese Americans and the War  Alliance with China: The U.S. military alliance with China against the Japanese improved both the social and legal status of Chinese and Chinese Americans in the U.S.  Declining Prejudice toward Chinese Americans: Government propaganda began depict the Chinese in a favorable light, and Chinese Americans began working in war plants due to the labor shortage, moving out of their relative social isolation of Chinatowns. A higher portion of Chinese Americans were drafted compared to any other national group (22 percent of all adult males). 26

27. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 27

28. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America –Women and Children in Wartime  Women in the Workforce: The war saw a 60 percent increase of women in the workforce, with many replacing male industrial workers serving in the military. They were more likely to be married and were a bit older than working women of the past.  WAACs and WAVEs: The army enlisted women (“Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps”) as did the navy (“Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service”), but they were mostly hired to do clerical work. Some did work as supply pilots, communication specialists, and air traffic controllers.  Start of the “Baby Boom”: The return of prosperity increased marriage rates and birth rates, beginning the “baby boom” that would take off even more after the war. 28

29. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War –Women and Children in Wartime  “Rosie the Riveter”: In early 1943, a song called “Rosie the River” became popular, and it was followed by an image of “Rosie” by famed illustrator Norman Rockwell on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post. It became socially acceptable for women to take on heavy industrial jobs and join unions, which they did in record numbers. Even mothers began to work, which had been a social taboo. But most women did not work in factories, but rather in service sector and clerical jobs. The bureaucratic needs of the war effort were enormous. 29 Race and Gender in Wartime America Race and Gender in Wartime America

30. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 30 Female worker at the Republic Drill and Tool Company, Chicago, Illinois, August 1942 Women worker drilling on a B-24 Liberator bomber at Consolidated Aircraft Corp., Fort Worth, Texas, in October 1942 J. Howard Miller’s famed 1943 poster for Westinghouse and the War Production Coordinating Committee

31. Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture  Anxiety: Families felt deep angst about the possibility of husbands, fathers, brothers, and other relatives being killed in combat, while women struggled to make ends meet on their own. Everyone struggled with shortages of goods and labor, while people were also anxious about the possibility of sabotage or invasion.  Consumerism Reborn: With money in their pockets, people began spending on consumer goods in a way that had not happened since the 1920s. –Wartime Entertainment and Leisure  Booming Mass Entertainment and Culture: Publishing, theater, and movie industries all did great business during the war years. Pictorial magazines like Life boomed as people sought information about the war, as did the purchase of radios for the same reason. 31

32. Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War 32

33. Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture –Wartime Entertainment and Leisure  Leisure Time: Resort hotels, casinos, and racetracks all did good business, as did dance halls. Soldiers and sailors on leave would often flock to dance halls.  Popularity of Swing: A relatively new form of jazz called “swing” played by “big bands” became immensely popular. Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller were popular band leaders who became major stars. Swing bands were also some of the first to integrate: Benny Goodman began hiring black musicians in 1935, and others followed suit. 33

34. Chapter Twenty-six: America in a World at War 34 Duke Ellington and his Orchestra around 1945

35. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Anxiety and Affluence in WartimeCulture –Women and Men in the Armed Services  Importance of USOs: The army recruited thousands of “wholesome” young women to serve as hostesses in United Service Organization (USO) clubs. They were expected to dress properly and dance and chat with lonely soldier and sailors, but nothing more than that. The USO also staged elaborate dance shows.  Homosexuality Not Tolerated: Military authorities did everything in their power to persecute gays or lesbians in the armed forces, although illicit heterosexual affairs were tolerated. 35

36. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture Anxiety and Affluence in Wartime Culture –Retreat from Reform  Shifting Gears: By late 1943, FDR stated that the war effort would take precedence over New Deal reforms.  Conservative Assault on the New Deal: Conservatives in Congress used the war as an excuse to dismantle many key New Deal reforms. They abolished the WPA and CCC, and were helped by Republican gains in Congress: 47 seats in the House and 10 in the Senate in 1942.  Roosevelt Reelected: In the 1944 election, Republicans ran the energetic young governor of New York, Thomas E. Dewey (1902-1971). Democratic leaders did make FDR replace his Vice President, the radical New Dealer Henry Wallace, for a more moderate candidate, Harry S. Truman of Missouri, who made his name investigating waste and corruption in wartime production. In the popular vote, FDR won 53.5 percent to Dewey’s 46 percent, and 432 electoral votes to Dewey’s 99. The Democrats held on to control of both houses of Congress. 36

37. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Liberation of France  Turning Point of 1943: The Allies managed to stopped the Axis advances this year, and beginning their own offensive drives.  Intensive Bombing: By early 1944, American and British bombers were hitting German industrial and transportation targets around the clock. Massive bombings of the cities of Leipzig, Dresden, and Berlin. A February 1945 raid on Dresden using incendiary devices created a massive firestorm that incinerated three-quarters of the previously untouched city, and killed 135,000 people, mostly civilians.  Invasion of France  Battle of the Bulge  Germany Invaded 37 Dresden after the firestorm

38. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Liberation of France  Invasion of France: For two years before the spring of 1944, a massive force of 3 million troops and a gigantic naval flotilla had been amassing in southern England. On June 6, 1944, the force attacked not the narrowest point of the English Channel (Calais, directly across from Dover) as the Germans expected, but on the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy, about 175 miles to the east. German forces were more heavily concentrated by Calais.  D-Day: About 4,000 vessels landed the invasion force of mostly Americans, British, and Canadian troops. The fighting on the beach was intense, but within a week, the Germans had been pushed off the Normandy coast due to superior Allied manpower and armaments. 38

39. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 39

40. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 40 Views from Allied landing craft on D-Day

41. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 41

42. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Liberation of France  Progress in France: Progress was slow for the first month until Gen. Omar Bradley’s First Army broke through German lines at the by late July, opening up a hole for General George S. Patton’s Third Army to plunge into the French interior. By August, Allied forces liberated Paris, and by mid-September, had driven out German troops out of most of France and Belgium.  Battle of the Bulge: The Germans stopped the Allied advance in December 1945 with one last massive offensive, trying to push them out from the Rhine Valley of Germany through the Ardennes Forest of Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. It was the last major battle on the Western Front. 42

43. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –Fall of Germany  Germany Invaded: In January 1945, the Soviets launched a massive offensive into eastern Germany toward Berlin by early spring. American troops pushed from the West, while a British force of 1 million pushed from the north, with both forces encircling the main German force of 300,000 in the Ruhr Valley. German resistance soon collapsed, and the Allied forces went racing toward Berlin. But the Allied High Command decided to stop the advance, thereby allowing the Soviets to take Berlin and also Czechoslovakia.  German Defeat: On April 30, 1945, with Soviet troops on the outskirts of Berlin, Hitler committed suicide, seemingly by shooting himself in the head in his bunker. By May 8, 1945, German forces surrendered unconditionally. 43

44. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War World War II in Europe: The Allied Counteroffensive, 1943-1945 44

45. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Pacific Offensive  Marshall Islands: In Feb. 1944, the American naval force led by Admiral Chester Nimitz scored several major victories in the Marshall Islands, cracking the perimeter of the Japanese Empire. American subs were also decimating Japanese shipping, destroying Japan’s domestic economy. Americans capture many of the heavily fortified Mariana Islands in June.  Battle of Leyte Gulf: In October 1944, General MacArthur’s army force landed on Leyte Island in the Philippines. The Japanese threw almost their entire naval force against the Americans in what was the biggest naval battle in history. The Americans won decisively, sinking four aircraft carriers and ending Japan’s ability to conduct a serious naval war.  Iwo Jima: American marines captured this tiny volcanic island in Feb. 1945 after the costliest battle in the history of the Marine Corps. Almost 7,000 marines were killed. Of the 22,000 Japanese troops on the island, only 216 were taken prisoner. 45  Marshall Islands: In Feb. 1944, the American naval force led by Admiral Chester Nimitz scored several major victories in the Marshall Islands, cracking the perimeter of the Japanese Empire. American subs were also decimatin g Japanese shipping, destroyin g Japan’s domestic economy. The American s captured much of the heavily fortified Mariana Islands in June.  Battle of Leyte Gulf: In October 1944, General MacArth ur’s army force landed on Leyte Island in the Philippin es. The Japanese threw almost their entire naval force against the American s in what was the biggest naval battle in history. The American s won decisivel y, sinking four aircraft carriers and ending Japan’s ability to conduct a serious naval war.

46. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War Raising the Flag at Iwo Jima 46

47. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Pacific Offensive  Battle of Okinawa: From April through June 1945, the Japanese put up fearsome resistance in this battle over the island of Okinawa in the Ryukyu Island chain south of Japan. Okinawa was only 370 miles from the Japanese mainland. At this time, the Japanese sent waves of kamikazes (about 3,500 during the last phase of the war) to attack American ships, causing great destruction. The U.S. suffered 50,000 casualties by the time Okinawa fell in June, the Japanese lost 100,000.  Invasion of Japan? By early 1945, it seemed unlikely that the Japanese could resist much longer, having barely any planes or ships left to fight.  Tokyo Firebombed: In March 1945, U.S. forces dropped napalm on Tokyo, creating a massive firestorm which killed 80,000 people. This event led many Japanese moderates to clamor for an end to the war. 47

48. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare  Nazi Efforts: In 1939, exiled European scientists let U.S. authorities know that Nazi scientists had begun work on an “atomic bomb.  Albert Einstein (1879-1955): The work of early twentieth-century atomic physicists, most notably Einstein, pointed to the idea that matter could be converted into a tremendous force of energy. Einstein reminded FDR of the German interest in atomic weapons around the time he became a U.S. citizen, in 1940 (he had left Germany in 1933).  Atomic Fission: The U.S. effort to build an atomic bomb focused on the use of uranium, the atomic structure of which makes possible the creation of a nuclear chain, a process in which atomic nuclei in radioactive are split by neutrons. Each fission creates new neutrons that cause new fission in surrounding atoms, causing an exponential effect. 48

49. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare  Enrico Fermi (1901-1954): This Italian-born scientist showed that atomic weapons were feasible by discovering uranium’s radioactivity in the 1930s. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1938. In his lab at the University of Chicago, he created the first controlled fission in December 1942.  Manhattan Project: The army took control of the weapon development in 1942, and the federal government poured $2 billion into it over the next three years. It took its name from the master plan being developed in a Manhattan office of the Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps coordinated work at many secret laboratories: Oak Ridge, TN; Los Alamos, NM; Hanford, WA; Berkeley, CA, etc. Scientists at Berkeley experimented with a new fuel derived from uranium, called plutonium, which could be harvested from reactors. 49

50. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare  J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967): The construction of the actual bomb was done at the Los Alamos laboratory under the direction of Oppenheimer. The scientists pushed much faster than expected, and readied a test bomb nicknamed “Trinity” on July 16, 1945, in a desert near Almogordo, NM. The bomb caused a flash of brilliant light followed by an enormous mushroom cloud. Oppenheimer later wrote that he was reminded of a passage the god Vishnu says in the Bhagavad-Gita: “I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.”  Ultimatum: On July 26, while attending a conference of Allied leaders in Potsdam, Germany, President Harry Truman co-signed a declaration ordering the Empire of Japan to surrender or face “prompt and utter destruction,” without mention of an atomic bomb. 50

51. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare  Persistent Controversy: Down to the present, there has been tremendous controversy among historians about whether or not the atomic attack was necessary, and what Truman’s real motives were. The argument that not using the bomb would have meant a costly U.S. invasion of Japan has come under considerable attack as of late.  Hiroshima and Nagasaki Destroyed: Truman saw no reason not to use it; he had been unaware of the Manhattan Project until he became president. On Aug. 6, the American B-29, Enola Gay, dropped an enriched uranium device known as “Little Boy.” It killed more than 80,000 people and incinerated a four-square mile area of the city center. On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. On August 9, the B-29 “Bockscar” dropped a plutonium device known as “Fat Man,” which killed 100,000 people. The initial target had been the port city of Kokura, but obscuring clouds made it necessary to drop it on the alternate target, Nagasaki. 51

52. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 52 Trinity Test explosion on July 16, 1945 Ruins in Nagasaki after the bombing on August 9, 1945 Ruins in Hiroshima after the bombing on August 6, 1945

53. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 53 The Defeat of the Axis The Defeat of the Axis –The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare  Surrender of Japan: On August 14, 1945, the Japanese government notified the Allies that it was ready to stop fighting. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989) read broadcast an imperial address to the nation declaring an end to the fighting. On September 2, a Japanese delegation signed formal surrender papers on the deck of the American battleship, Missouri, anchored in Tokyo Bay.  The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb: Truman himself claimed that the bombings were necessary to avoid a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland, a view that many historians still support. Others, like historian Gar Alperovitz, has argued in two books that Japan would have surrendered anyway, and that the use of the bomb was the first shot in the Cold War—Truman wanted to intimidate the Soviets. Historian John W. Dower has claimed that racism played a big role in the decision, although there is little hard evidence to back this position up.

54. Chapter Twenty-Six: America in a World at War 54 Japanese delegation on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri preparing to sign the surrender agreement on September 2, 1945. The two figures in the front are Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu (wearing top hat) and General Yoshijiro Umezu, Chief of the Army General Staff.