1. Presentation title slide

2. Chapter 1:
Your Own Skills and Characteristics
Chapter 2:
Theories and Patterns of Development

3. UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Introduction
This chapter will help you understand the patterns of physical, cognitive, linguist, emotional, and social development of infants, children, and adolescents.
Learning about theories that explain different types of development will help you understand and make predictions for behaviour.
This understanding will guide you to plan appropriate activities and create positive environments to help children and adolescents achieve desired goals and behaviours.

4. Patterns of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Patterns of Development
Physical, intellectual, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of human life are integrated. The sequence of development remains fairly constant in all cultures, however, the culture and environment a child is raised in can affect the speed of the child’s development.
growth refers to physical changes that can be measured
development refers to changes in skills and abilities, and to maturity
As you watch the presentation, look for connections among the types of development and for ways a caregiver might adapt the way he or she interacts with children as a result.

5. Principles of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Principles of Development
(continued...)

6. Principles of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Principles of Development
Children around the world develop in similar ways. These patterns rely on brain stimulation to initiate and support development.
Pause and Think: Sample answers:
Development proceeds from simple to complex: I learned to scribble with a crayon before I learned how to make specific marks and print letters.
Development is individualized: One of my brothers learned to crawl at 6 months of age and learned to walk at 14 months of age. My other brother never crawled but learned to
walk at 12 months of age.
Development is a lifelong process: My grandmother is learning to skate.
Development is interrelated: After I learned to kick a ball, I developed social skills by playing soccer on a team.
Development is flexible: My grandparents did not speak English when they came to Canada as adults, but they learned how by taking courses and reading newspapers.
Development is contextual: My father has a hearing impairment. As a result, I learned American sign language before I learned to speak.
Institutions, such as schools, support these principles by encouraging development in all areas, by encouraging development of simple skills and then more complex
skills, by recognizing individual differences, and by providing rich environments in which to learn. Community organizations provide opportunities for development to
all ages.
Describe an example of development that illustrates each principle. You may choose examples from your own childhood or from a child you have observed. How do institutions support these principles of development?

7. Physical Development UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Physical Development
Physical development occurs over many years as children and adolescents gain control over gross and fine motor skills.
When the brain is stimulated, it forms neural connections from sensory areas to motor areas.
In early childhood, changes occur in the body’s lymphatic (defense mechanism), skeletal, and nervous systems.
Both environmental stimulation and good nutrition enable the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to form new neural connections.
When caring for infants, it is necessary to take precautions with tender areas, such as the head and neck. Why?

8. Motor Development and Coordination
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Motor Development and Coordination
Physical development follows four patterns.
cephalocaudal pattern, referred to as head-to-foot sequence (lifts head before sitting or walking)
proximodistal pattern refers to physical development from the centre of body outward, for example, gross motor skills before fine motor skills
A child’s framework for neural connections is ready for stimulation through play and social interactions, allowing further development.

9. Motor Development and Coordination
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Motor Development and Coordination
Physical development (continued)
orthogenetic patterns refers to the development of simple skills before complex skills, for example, a child can draw a line, then a circle with a face
principle of independence refers to body systems growing at different rates (rapid growth of central nervous in infancy)
Why do children’s drawings change as cognitive and motor skills develop?

10. Factors Affecting Growth and Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Factors Affecting Growth and Development
Both nature and nurture play roles in physical development. “Nurture” means that the environment children are raised in can affect physical growth and development. Examples of nurture factors include
the availability of nutritious food
under-nutrition, which can cause difficulty in absorbing food
regular (or irregular) patterns of eating, sleeping, exercising, and organizing
exposure to drugs and alcohol
nature: the traits we are born with; can include physical characteristics, certain disease, and personality traits
nurture: the effects of the environment on development; for example, copying the behaviour of our parents, the effects of poverty or malnutrition, deliberately changing our appearance

11. Integrated Benefits of Physical Activity
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Integrated Benefits of Physical Activity
Regular physical activity has substantial physical, mental, and social health benefits, including:
maintaining a healthy skeletal system
controlling body weight
assisting functioning of respiratory and circulatory systems
helping to prevent and control mental health issues
Sample answers include providing opportunities for intramural and intermural sports, lunchtime yoga or walking clubs, and dance events; promoting opportunities in the wider community; making healthy snacks available; creating displays and events about nutrition; and providing rewards for physical activity.
What factors do you think make children’s participation in soccer so high?
How can secondary schools promote positive physical development?

12. UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Think Critically
Describe two activities that could help people in each of the following age groups develop coordination
infants
school-age children
adolescents
Create a timeline of physical development from infancy to adolescence. On your timeline, show when key motor skills are normally developed.
1. Sample answer, infants could learn to grasp and shake a rattle or take soft toys out of a bucket. School-age children could play sports, such as soccer, or learn to write or do calligraphy. Adolescents could learn to dance or practise yoga.
2. Timelines should contain skills and approximate age ranges, such as the following:
• Infant: raise head and chest (3 months), roll over (6 months), sit independently (9 months), walk independently (12 to 18 months)
• Toddler: run, jump, and throw a ball (two years)
• Preschooler: walk on tiptoes, climb, gallop, kick a ball, skip, stand on one foot, pedal a bicycle, leap, gallop sideways (three to five years)
• School-age child: variations in height and weight, secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop (six to eight years)
• Adolescent: secondary sexual characteristics develop completely, maximum height is reached (9 to 17 years)

13. Cognitive and Linguistic Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Cognitive and Linguistic Development
As children and adolescents mature, they learn to use cognitive and linguistic skills to organize, connect, and retrieve knowledge through language, reasoning, problem solving, and memory.
Skill development moves from simple to complex.
Cognitive and linguistic skills do not develop in isolation from physical, social, and emotional skills.
Cognitive and linguistic skills are affected by genetics, environment influences, and personality.
cognitive skills: a skill that helps people organize, identify, and understand the world around them
linguistic skills: a skill that helps people understand and use sounds, words, and sentences to communicate ideas orally and in writing
Pause and think: Answers will depend on the age group discussed. Physical development allows infants and young children to move around, manipulate objects, and explore their world. This exploration allows cognitive development to take place as children use their senses to learn about things. Cognitive development encourages linguistic development as young children develop vocabulary to describe what they have learned. Physical development in older children and adults helps maintain health and has been linked to cognitive health and development. Linguistic development, such as literacy skills, provides opportunities to learn even more and make connections between new learning and what is already known, thus improving cognitive skills.
How are cognitive and linguistic development related to physical development?

14. Cognitive Theories UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Cognitive Theories
Several models of cognitive development based on research have been developed to help us understand how people process and organize information, develop new skills, and make new mental connections. For example,
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
How does poverty effect cognitive development?

15. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
According to Jean Piaget ( ), people organize their perceptions so that they can draw from an existing schema and adapt it to new situations. This adaption is a two-step process
assimilate: for example, when going to a new school, you use the theories and experiences from previous schemas to help you fit in
accommodate: for example, as you learn more about the new school, you modify your schema to fit the characteristics of the new school
schema: a mental image that helps us interpret a concept or an idea
assimilate: interpret new information based on existing schemas
accommodate: use new information to change existing schemas, allowing for new interpretations

16. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Piaget found that children progress through four stages of thinking.
Sensorimotor stage: Children gain knowledge by using their senses and motor abilities to explore during the first two years.
At this stage, they learn that objects still exist even though they cannot be seen, which is called object permanence.
Preoperational stage: Children ages two to seven understand and manipulate the meaning of symbols (for example, a stick can be a horse).
Children at this age are egocentric, which means they only view the world from their own perspective.
(continued...)

17. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Stages of thinking continued:
Concrete operational stage: Children ages seven to twelve can solve problems logically, use reasoning, and understand conservation (for example, they can understand that two balls of clay can have equal mass even if one ball is rolled out flat).
Concrete objects are often used to help problem solve.
Formal operational stage: Most teenagers can think about abstract ideas, generalize, and understand that things have more than one meaning.
Teenagers can think, plan, and create in their head.
(continued...)

18. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Piaget connected cognitive development to moral reasoning.
At first, children recognize “right and wrong” as determined by authority figures.
As children develop and think abstractly, they understand that the same rules do not fill all situations — that there is no absolute right or wrong.
Describe an example of a child’s behaviour while he or she is engaged in an activity. Explain which of Piaget’s stages of development the behaviour best illustrates.
Pause and think: Sample Answer: Six-year-old Alesha was visiting her friend Timothy. The children decided to play with toy cars and developed a scenario involving a traffic jam in a snowstorm. Timothy used a shoe as a snowplow, clearing the road for the vehicles. Alesha used the other shoe as a garage for one of the cars, but Timothy insisted that car couldn’t go into that garage; it belonged with one of the other cars at the other end of the street.
Timothy and Alesha appear to be in Piaget’s preoperational stage of development. They manipulate objects to understand and make sense of their world and engage in imaginative play. Timothy does not understand that there are perspectives other than his own, another sign of this developmental stage.

19. Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
Lev Vygotsky ( ) believed that learning takes place when people interact with their social environment.
Knowledge development in which the learner plays an active role is called constructivism.
The range between what the learner needs support with and what the learner can do is known as the zone of proximal development. This is where most learning takes place.
Children learn a new skill and progress from needing support to being able to perform the skill independently.
constructivism: an individual plays an active role in solving a problem, such as thinking critically to come up with a solution
zone of proximal development: the range between what a person needs significant support to do and what the person can do independently, where most learning takes place
Lev Vygotsky emphasized the roles society and culture play in learning – a new perspective at the time.
(continued...)

20. Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
To support optimal cognitive and linguistic development, a caregiver needs to find a balance between stimulation and allowing children to explore on their own.
Using scaffolding means the caregiver will offer the child support when needed and then allow for independent performance of skills as the skills develop.
scaffolding: providing support at first, then withdrawing support gradually as the learner is able to perform more of the skills independently
What activities might you need a lot of support with? What activities are you able to perform independently?
(continued...)

21. Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Approach
Once children have learned to perform a skill independently, they can apply the skill to a new context. Vygotsky called this decontextualization.
Speech and language development follows this process, for example, children will use self -talk to guide themselves through a new skill.
Piaget’s theory describes specific stages of development a child passes through. How does that compare with Vygotsky’s theory of development? Do you think the two theories are in conflict or in agreement? Explain.
decontextualization: applying learned skills to new contexts independently
Pause and Think: Points of comparison may include those in this table.
Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory
It is based on cognitive construction. It is based on social construction.
It describes stages of development. It does not describe stages.
The key aspects include schema, assimilation, and accommodation. The key aspects include the zone of proximal development, language and communication with others, and
scaffolding.
Cognitive skills influence language development. Language plays a central role in shaping thought.
Education refines cognitive skills that develop in each stage. Education plays a central role in learning.
Teachers facilitate and guide children’s learning as they explore their world. Teachers provide opportunities for learning to take place.
Students may argue the two theories are in agreement because they both explain how children learn from their environment when they are ready to learn. Students may argue
the theories are in conflict because Piaget’s theory describes learning being a natural process that a child undergoes. The process is shaped by the environment but not initiated by the environment. Vygotsky’s theory describes a process that is initiated and moved forward by people in the child’s environment.

22. Information Processing
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Information Processing
Information processing is a theory that focusses on how humans actively process information from the time it enters the mind to the time it is output. The process is as follows
information enters through senses (sensory memory – lasts less than a second)
information is attended to in working memory (short-term memory – lasts a few seconds)
information is saved forever in long-term memory (lasts a life time) or disappears
(continued...)

23. Information Processing
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Information Processing
The more information is saved in long-term memory, the greater ability to solve problems and process information in other ways. Metacognition will help build memory and retrieval of memory through
rehearsal or repetition, which helps build neural pathways
chunking information into smaller bits
making connections through reading, listening, talking, visuals, hands-on learning
The ability to control attention differs with age, interest, intelligence and level of hyperactivity.
metacognition: thinking about how you think

24. UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Think Critically
Suggest an example of someone you know in each of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. What observations led you to believe each person was in the stage you chose?
Think about how you prepare for a multiple-choice test versus an essay question test. How can knowing about the information processing theory help you better prepare for each type of test?
In what ways can Vygotsky’s theory be used to help plan activities to develop language skills?
1. Sample examples and observations:
Sensorimotor stage: One-year-old Kara is learning to walk. She crawls when she wants to move quickly, pulls herself upright using furniture, walks around chairs and footstools, and balances herself before finally taking two steps to her father. She is exploring the world before walking independently.
Preoperational stage: Two-year-old Luc is developing language skills. He has fewer temper tantrums now and can often ask for what he wants using words.
Concrete operational stage: Manny is in Grade 5. His language and cognitive skills have developed to such a level that, when questioned, Manny can explain the difference between gases, liquids, and solids.
Formal operations stage: Harmony is preparing for her senior prom. She starts early in the year by saving money to buy a dress and shoes and contribute to the cost of a limousine. She scours the Internet to find a design that suits her body type and budget.
2. Students might suggest that reviewing and repeating facts and details to store them in long-term memory will be helpful for both types of test. For multiple-choice tests, students may suggest using such strategies as rehearsal and repetition to move information to long-term memory. For essay question tests, students may suggest rehearsing or repeating information in different combinations so that connections that may be useful for writing comparisons or analyses can be developed in the brain. Graphic organizers can be effective ways to rehearse connections and relationships.
3. Students should mention that the activities should allow language skills to develop naturally through meaningful social interactions. The activities should involve different learning styles. Students should also suggest that scaffolding be used to help develop key language skills and that support should be removed gradually to allow students to learn in their zone of proximal development. For example, beginning readers may learn best when a caregiver reads a book to them, asking questions and initiating discussion. As children become more fluent readers, they may learn best by reading a story and working with a group of other children to create an artistic response to it. A caregiver could facilitate by providing key questions and making sure children have access to the materials they need.

25. Intellectual Theories
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Intellectual Theories
Intelligence is a complex set of characteristics and abilities that many theorists have attempted to explain.
Charles Spearman ( ) developed the idea of general intelligence, describing a g factor that reflects a cluster of types of intelligence that often occur together.
Howard Gardner ( ) developed the theory of Multiple Intelligences.
Robert Sternberg ( ) developed Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.
Example of a g factor: people who score high in verbal intelligence will also score high in spacial reasoning

26. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner expanded on Spearman’s idea of intellectual clusters (Myers, 2007). He listed nine types of intelligence:
Verbal-linguistic: learn by using words, whether reading, writing, or listening
Logical mathematical: learning through experiment, thinking logically to make connections and see patterns; enjoys math, design, science
Visual-spatial: learning through graphics, demonstrations, videos; uses imagination and creativity to show what they know
(continued...)

27. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Musical: excels in music and learns through music medium
Bodily-kinesthetic: learns through hands-on experiences
Interpersonal: learns by working with others; able to interpret what others think
Intrapersonal: learns by working independently; setting and meeting goals
Naturalistic: learns through hands-on experience in natural environment
Existentialist: learns by looking beyond the obvious for deeper meaning
(continued...)

28. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
How could you apply Gardner’s multiple intelligences to plan how to teach multiplication to an eight-year-old?

29. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg believed intelligence could be looked at from three points of view. All three contribute to a person’s ability to function productively.
Sternberg's three types of intelligence. How do these compare with Gardner's multiple intelligences?

30. Behaviouralist Approaches to Learning
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Behaviouralist Approaches to Learning
Behaviouralist approaches to learning explain that behaviours are learned and changed as a result of experience. Changes in behaviour are observable and development is continual. Theorists (and their theories) include
Ivan Pavlov ( ): Classical Conditioning
B.F. Skinner ( ): Operant Conditioning
Albert Bandura (1925- ): Social Learning Theory

31. Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov studied reflexive responses of the digestive system in animals. Dogs would salivate when they saw food. However, Pavlov noticed that they also salivated when they saw the people who brought them food and the noises associated with the food.
In Pavlov’s classical conditioning, food (the unconditioned stimulus) caused dogs to salivate (the unconditioned response).
Because the dogs heard a bell ringing when they were brought food, eventually, the bell alone (the conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (conditioned response).
If this connection was not maintained from time to time, the response became extinct.
classical conditioning: developing a response to a previously neutral stimulus because that stimulus is associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, for example, salivating at the sound of a bell because the bell sounds when the food is delivered

32. B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner built on Pavlov’s work by studying the effects of reinforcing particular behaviours. Reinforcing a desired response could allow a researcher to modify behaviour. This process is called operant conditioning. Through this process
positive reinforcement encourages the continuation of the behaviour (positive reward)
negative reinforcement discourages the continuation of the behaviour (negative punishment)
operant conditioning: learning to modify behaviour based on receiving a reward or a punishment
Aversive therapy (a form of operant condition) uses negative reinforcement by shocking behaviour to encourage change. Should society use operant conditioning to influence individual choice?

33. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
According to Bandura, behaviour is learned by observing models. Children learn new skills because of internal or external motivations to learn.
Internal motivation comes from within the child, for example, a feeling of satisfaction for learning something new.
External motivation is when learning is reinforced by an outside source, for example, praise from a parent or peers.
Pause and think: Sample answers: I love feeling strong and healthy. That internal reinforcement encourages me to choose healthy foods and to exercise. The external reinforcement of marks in school affects my study habits.
What are some external and internal reinforcements that have affected your behaviour?
(continued...)

34. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
In a famous study in 1961, preschoolers were divided into three groups. One group observed an adult playing with toys; another group observed an adult attacking a bobo doll; another group did not observe any model. The children were then allowed to play.
The group that observed the attack were much more aggressive than the other two groups.
Bandura concluded that
children will imitate aggressive and altruistic behaviour
the environment causes behaviour
behaviour can then cause changes in the environment
A Bobo doll is inflatable and weighted so that when it is hit or punched, it falls over and then rights itself.

35. UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Think Critically
When have you seen teachers or group leaders use classical conditioning to get children’s attention?
What effective behaviouralist strategies can be used to teach skill development when coaching or leading a club?
Discuss methods a counsellor could use to assess the multiple intelligences of a group of young adolescents at a summer day camp? In what ways might this benefit their experience of camp?
You are asked to plan for a group of eight to 10-year-olds from diverse backgrounds. Describe three activities for each type of intelligence in Sternberg’s theory that you could include in your plan.
Examples include turning the lights off to get students’ attention, holding a hand up or clapping a rhythm to get students’ attention.
For example, a coach might reward a team with ice cream after a big win, coaches might let team members know they played well and gave their all, and they should be proud. Coaches might post personal bests for others to see or reward team members with a medal at the end of the season. Club leaders might reward their group with an overnight camping excursion or a movie night with snacks. Leaders will model behaviours that they expect from the members of the group.
Different stations could be set up that engage different intelligences. At the end of the circuit, campers could rate which activity they enjoyed the most. The campers could complete a survey that assesses multiple intelligences by using either paper or computer programs. Benefits to assessing multiple intelligences include being able to plan activities that everyone in the group will enjoy. You could allow individuals to choose the activities they would like to take part in.
4. Answers could include the following:
Analytic
Provide paper and tape and see which pair can create the highest tower 2. Have the group create new rules for a familiar card game 3. Conduct a blind taste test to see if children can identify a brand of drink or food
Creative
Provide newspaper and have children create a fashion show or comic book characters 2. Provide tablets for children to create a comic strip by using an online webpage 3. Provide materials to create a bird feeder
Practical
1. Challenge children to solve a problem such as how to get a cork out of a bottle when given a napkin, water, and string 2. Have a video game round-robin competition 3. Set out pizza ingredients and let children build their own pizzas.

36. Social and Emotional Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Social and Emotional Development
Emotions and social skills are dependent on each other. Children may develop particular social norms such as smiling or regulating their emotions at different times, depending on the social norms or cues from their culture. In general,
children first develop feelings of happiness, sadness, and anger;
then come complex emotions such as guilt, jealousy, and contempt.
Depending on social environment and cognitive development, children learn to control their emotions.
Adolescents can develop tightly controlled emotions as they learn coping strategies.

37. Emotional Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Emotional Development
Emotions are connected to ongoing cognitive development.
Infants who build trust with a parent/caregiver will build trusting relationships later in life.
Infants in an unfamiliar environment will look to their parent/caregiver as a social reference for comfort.
Between 7 and 8 months of age, some infants become wary of strangers.
At 12 months, some infants show separation anxiety.
In early childhood, children begin to read emotions in others and understand how their emotions affect others. Children who can regulate their emotions tend to be empathic and prosocial.

38. Patterns of Social and Emotional Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Patterns of Social and Emotional Development
Emotional development refers to stages of identifying and understanding emotions. Social development also progresses in stages.
During infancy and early childhood, children form attachments and bonds to primary caregivers.
Gradually through middle childhood, they become more independent as they form multiple attachments.
Adolescents become independent from parents as they develop their own self-concept and personal identity.
The areas of the brain that deal with emotions are the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex; the limbic area, including the amygdala and hypothalamus; and the brainstem.

39. Attachment Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Attachment Perspectives
The development of secure attachment is important in every culture. Infant attachment to caregivers has been studied by several researchers.
Rene Spitz ( ) studied the physical and psychological effects on an infant who experienced prolonged separation from its mother because of hospitalization.
Spitz observed delays in physical, emotional, and linguistic development.
(continued...)

40. Attachment Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Attachment Perspectives
John Bowlby ( ) determined that infants need to be in close proximity with their caregiver in times of stress.
Bowlby found that long separations between mother and infant had a serious effect on the child’s emotional and intellectual development.
The critical period for attachment is between birth and five years of age.
(continued...)

41. Attachment Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Attachment Perspectives
In 1969 Harry Harlow ( ) studied monkeys who were separated from their mothers at birth.
The monkeys were provided with a cloth substitute mother and a wire-frame-with-food substitute mother. He found that the monkeys would go to the wire frame for food, however they spent more time with the cloth substitute mother for comfort.
Harlow found that monkeys raised in isolation suffered from a lack of attachment to their mother.
The monkeys were aggressive and fearful.
Females did not become nurturing mothers themselves.
(continued...)

42. Attachment Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Attachment Perspectives
Mary Ainsworth (1934- ) observed the reaction of children with secure attachments and with insecure attachment patterns when they were left with a stranger. She found the quality of attachment formed early influenced later relationships.
Securely attached children showed stress with the stranger and quickly warmed to the mother when she returned.
Some of the children with insecure attachments showed extreme distress with the stranger and showed resistance to the mother when she returned.
Other insecurely attached children showed little emotion to the stranger and treated the stranger the same way they treated their mother.

43. Psychoanalytic Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Sigmund Freud ( ) believed that sexual and aggressive drives motivate behaviour.
infants are born with an id that needs immediate gratification (for example, food and warmth)
by age two or three, the ego is established; the ego uses logic to determine behaviour (for example, a hungry child can wait for dinner)
by age five or six, the superego drives toward socially acceptable behaviours (for example, waiting to ask for a cookie)
personalities can be fixated in one stage
id: the part of the self that uses instinct and impulse to drive behaviour
ego: the part of the self that understands and uses logic to determine behaviour
superego: a person’s conscience; it encourages socially acceptable behaviours
An individual’s personality can be thought of as an iceberg. Some aspects of personality operate in the conscious mind while others are in the unconscious mind.

44. Freud’s Stages of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Freud’s Stages of Development
Freud associated each stage of development with a body zone.
The id develops in the oral stage as infants put everything in their mouths as stimulation. Fixations: thumb sucking, chewing nails
The ego develops in the anal stage (age two) when they are learning to control their bowels. Fixations: emotional or obsessive
The phallic stage (age three to six) is a time of heightened genital sensitivity. (Child may compete with same sex parent for affection of opposite sex parent.)
Early to late childhood is the latency stage, with no observable physchoanalytical development.
The genital stage occurs at puberty with focus on genitals. Fixation: sexual difficulties

45. Erikson’s Stages of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Erikson’s Stages of Development
Erik Erikson ( ) developed the psychosocial theory to address changes over a lifespan. By mastering the crisis at each stage, people become ready to proceed to the next stage.
Infants: trust versus mistrust
Toddlers: autonomy versus shame or doubt
Preschoolers: initiative versus guilt
School-age children: industry versus inferiority
Adolescents: identity versus role confusion
Young adults: intimacy versus isolation
Middle-aged adults: generativity versus stagnation
Seniors: integrity versus despair

46. Adler’s Stages of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Adler’s Stages of Development
Alfred Adler ( ) used a different model to describe social or emotional development. He suggested that
Children are born feeling inferior to physically larger people .
They strive for success and superiority as they shape their behaviours.
Feelings of inferiority can be compensated for in devious ways such as bullying or using someone to gain status.
To overcome inferiority, children must develop key skills.
If children are neglected, their goals remain unconscious.

47. Horney’s Stages of Development
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Horney’s Stages of Development
Karen Horney ( ) emphasized that the family influences children’s behaviour.
Children learn from seeing conflict and resolution within their own family as they grow up.
Neglect is the most damaging factor in a child’s development because children are then raised to feel insecure and anxious.
Circumstances of neglect can sometimes lead to neurosis as a child struggles between real self and their idealized self.
Neurotic individuals dislike themselves and become self-destructive.

48. Maslow’s Humanistic Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Maslow’s Humanistic Perspectives
Abraham Maslow ( ) developed a theory that organized humans’ motivation to meet basic needs in a hierarchy. The hierarchy was built as follows:
basic physiological needs, such as food, water, air
safety needs, include safe home, school, work
belonging needs, children learn social skills
self esteem needs, building confidence with praise and empathy
self actualization needs, thinking globally rather than personally
Can someone remain at the first or second level on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

49. Rogers Humanistic Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Rogers Humanistic Perspectives
Carl Rogers believed that healthy individuals live in balance between who they are and who they think they should be.
People who live in balance experience congruence between the self and the ideal self and possess inner strength and self-knowledge or change behaviour.
Students may have encountered the word congruence in math studies. It means in agreement, in harmony; math: being exactly the same size and shape so that all parts match.
Incongruence describes having an ideal self that is different from the self you perceive. Can a person ever expect to live in congruence?

50. Humanistic Perspectives
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Humanistic Perspectives
Record 10 words that describe your personality. Then record 10 words that describe what you wish your personality was like. How different are your lists? Are your self and ideal self congruent or incongruent? How can you make yourself more balanced?
Pause and Think: Sample answers: Students might use such words as risk-taking, assertive, charismatic, dependable, extroverted, introverted, sociable, sympathetic, talkative, easy-going, honest, loud, hard-working, popular, serious, vain, wise, flexible, and responsible. Congruent individuals who like who they are will have lists that are similar.
Incongruent individuals who do not like who they are will have lists that are very different.
Changing particular behaviours can help an individual achieve balance.

51. UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Think Critically
How can you ensure a positive environment to promote healthy social and emotional development when working with children and youth?
If a child’s social and emotional development is slower than that of his or her peers, how could that affect the child’s cognitive and physical development? Provide a response for each of the following age groups: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence.
1. Sample responses: You can post positive messages on the walls to let children and youth know you care about them, provide age-appropriate activities that show you understand and respect their interests, practise active listening skills, insist on compassion and empathy, respect their communications, know that issues faced by children and youth are important to them, provide opportunities to take risks in a safe environment, allow time for both individualism and group activities, understand that what children and youth show to the world might cover what they hide inside, be inclusive of differences, and model acceptance.
2. Sample answers:
Early childhood: This age group is focussed on initiative, according to Erikson. Children may not take risks if they are worried about what others think of them. This hesitation may delay the development of cognitive and physical skills, since taking risks is a part of learning. Children may not reach out to others for help if they are socially or emotionally delayed. They may be reluctant to ask others to join them in building blocks, climbing, or riding bikes, so they will continue with parallel play rather than cooperative play.
Middle childhood: As children enter school, they begin to think logically and are aware of external events, according to Piaget’s theory. They are in the industry stage, according to Erikson. A delay in social or emotional skill development could affect their willingness to join groups or teams or their acceptance by other members of the group. This reluctance to join in can delay the acquisition of physical or cognitive development as they will not be exposed to the learning that takes place in the groups or teams.
Late childhood: Children in later elementary school continue to develop problem-solving skills through logic and deduction. Children with less-developed social skills might hesitate to speak ideas out loud and not feel comfortable asking for help. They may resist joining a group or sports team, which could contribute to obesity and poor health.
Adolescence: Adolescents with low self-esteem will separate themselves from social activities and miss engaging in cognitive and physical activities. The gap widens if others do nothing to make them feel included.

52. Putting It All Together
UNIT 1
Chapter 2: Theories and Patterns of Development
Putting It All Together
In this chapter, you have
studied patterns of development from infancy to adolescence
examined theories related to physical, cognitive, linguistic, social, and emotional development
learned how to apply an understanding of development to planning age-appropriate activities and environments