1. CHAPTER 12: DEVELOPMENT © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. Developmental Psychology © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Developmental psychology  Branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life

3. Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue  Hereditary Influences based on the genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development throughout life  Environment The influence of parents, siblings, family, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences in which a child is exposed © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. Nature and Nurture © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Strategies for Studying Development  Determining the relative influence of nature and nurture Study of identical twins (those who are genetically identical © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. Specific Research Approaches © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Cross-sectional research People of different ages are compared at the same point in time  Longitudinal research Behavior of one or more participants is traced as the participants age  Cross-sequential research Combines above by taking a number of different age groups and examining them over several points in time

7. Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Chromosomes  Rod-shaped structures that contain the basic hereditary information  Genes  Smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted  DNA  Biological equivalent of “software” that programs the future development of all parts of the body’s hardware

8. Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9. Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Gene therapy  Heath care providers inject corrective or remove defective genes to correct particular diseases directly into a patient’s bloodstream  Raises ethical and moral issues  Cloning Most Americans oppose cloning human embryos

10. Prenatal Development: The Basics of Genetics © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

11. The Earliest Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Germinal period  First two weeks  Zygote The new cell that is formed by fertilization  Embryonic period  2 to 8 weeks  Embryo Rapid growth of the zygote that has developed a heart, brain, intestinal tract, and other organs

12. The Earliest Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Fetal period  8 weeks until birth  Fetus  Age of viability  Point at which it can survive if born prematurely (about 24 weeks)  Critical periods (Sensitive period)  Times during development when specific events have their greatest impact

13. Genetic Influences on the Fetus © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Phenylketonuria (PKU) Cannot produce enzyme required for normal development- results in profound mental retardation  Sickle-cell anemia Abnormal red blood cells-affects 10% of African Americans  Tay-Sachs disease Body unable to break down fat-found in Jews of Eastern European descent  Down syndrome Extra chromosome-mental retardation and unique physical and medical characteristics-basketball playersbasketball players

14. Prenatal Environmental Influences © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Teratogens  Environmental agents that produce a birth defect  Mother’s nutrition and emotional state  Mother’s illness  Mother’s drug use  Alcohol and nicotine  Fetal alcohol syndrome

15. Prenatal Environmental Influences © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)  One out of 750 infants  Below-average intelligence  Growth delays  Facial deformities

16. Prenatal Environmental Influences © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

17. Alternate Paths to Conception © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  In vitro fertilization (IVF)  Woman’s eggs are removed from her ovaries, and a man’s sperm is used to fertilize the eggs in a laboratory, then is implanted in a woman’s uterus

18. Alternate Paths to Conception © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)  Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)  Both GIFT and ZIFT are procedures in which an egg and sperm or fertilized egg are implanted in a woman’s fallopian tubes

19. The Extraordinary Newborn © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  The Neonate  Reflexes Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Gag reflex Startle reflex Babinski reflex

20. During the First Year  Rolls over at 3 months  Sits without support at 6 months  Stands alone at about 11 months  Walks at just over one year old © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

21. Development of the Senses: Taking in the World  Habituation  The decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimuli © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

22. Physical Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

23. Development of Social Behavior  Attachment  The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual  Lorenz and imprinting-Austrian behaviorist who studied geese behavior.  Found that goslings who hatched and immediately saw him, followed him as if he were their mother.  Labeled this behavior IMPRINTING  It is behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed.  imprinted imprinted

24. Harry Harlow  Classic study on attachment.  Given a choice between a wire monkey that provided food and a soft, heated monkey, a baby monkey choose the warm monkey most of the time.  Showed that attachment was much more important than food to infant monkeys.  video video

25. Measuring Attachment © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Ainsworth “strange situation”  Experiment that was a quick and direct way to measure attachment, categories were:  Securely attached  Avoidant  Ambivalent  Disorganized-disoriented  Securely attached child are happiest and have more stable adult relationships.  video video

26. Attachment © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27. Social Relationships with Peers © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Play  Cultural differences  Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately  Daycare  High-quality, enriching care can stimulate  Low-quality can cause insecurity

28. Parenting Styles-are critical in shaping their children’s social competence  Authoritarian  Rigid, punitive, strict standards  Uninvolved  Detached emotionally, sees role only as providing food, clothing, and shelter  styles styles  Authoritative/Democratic  Firm, sets limits and goals, uses reasoning, and encourages independence  Permissive  Lax, inconsistent, undemanding © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

29. Parenting Styles © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30. Temperament  A basic, innate disposition  May bring about particular kinds of parental child-rearing styles © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

31. Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Psychosocial development  Involves changes in our interactions and understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society  Stages are a pairing of the most positive and most negative aspects of the crisis of that period

32. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Trust versus mistrust  Birth to 1 ½ years  Autonomy versus shame and doubt  1 ½ to 3 years  Initiative versus guilt  3 to 6 years  Industry versus inferiority  6 to 12 years

33. Cognitive Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Cognitive development-Jean Piaget  Process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience  Without having a variety of experiences, the child cannot reach their highest level of cognitive growth.  Piaget’s work is studied all over the world and is largely accepted.

34. Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Sensorimotor-understanding of the world is based on touching, chewing, shaking and manipulating objects.  Birth – 2 years  Object permanence is lacking, children believe that because they can’t see something, it doesn’t exist.  Object permanence begins to appear about 9 months.

35. Preoperational Stage  Age 2 to 7 years.  This stage is characterized by language development.  Children develop internal representations of objects.  Egocentric Thinking-view the world from his or her own perspective.  Principle of Conservation-the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement of physical appearance of objects.videovideo

36. Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Concrete operational  7-12 years  Children are able to think in a more logical manner  Children learn the idea of reversibility-the idea that changes can be undone by reversing an earlier action video video  Although children make important advances in their logical capabilities, their thinking is still concrete and lack abstract and hypothetical thinking

37. Formal Operational Stage  Formal operational  12 years – adulthood  Logical and abstract thinking  Thinking is no longer tied to events the individual observe in the environment but makes use of logical techniques to solve problems  Use of the pendulum problem © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

38. Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

39. Cognitive Development: Piaget’s View © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

40. Information Processing Theory  Information processing  Way in which people take in, use, and store information  Metacognition  Awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

41. Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s View  Zone of proximal development (ZPD)  The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own  Scaffolding © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

42. Adolescence: Becoming an Adult © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Adolescence  The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood  Puberty The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs begins at about age 11 or 12 for girl and about age 13 or 14 for boys In girls the first menstruation marks puberty, while for boys the spermarche is the event marking puberty.

43. Age of Onset  Boys who mature early tend to be better in athletics, are generally more popular with peers and have more positive self-concepts.  Girls who mature early tend to have better self- esteem, but may be ridiculed because of physical development.  Late maturation produced psychological difficulties for both boys and girls. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

44. Adolescence: Becoming an Adult © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

45. Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Adolescent egocentrism  A state of self-absorption in which the world is viewed from one’s own point of view  Personal fables  The view that what happens to them is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else

46. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  People move through a three-level sequence of moral reasoning in a fixed order  Strongly influenced by Piaget  Gave adolescence boys a moral dilemma and asked them to resolve it

47. Level 1 Preconventional morality- The consequences determine morality; behavior that is rewarded is right; that which is punished is wrong.  Example: a child who steals a toy from another child and does not get caught does not see that action as wrong.

48. Level 2 Conventional morality-Conformity to social norms is right; non-conformity is wrong e.g. A child criticizes his parent for speeding because it is against the law.

49. Level 3 Postconventional morality FFew people ever reach the highest level (Kohlberg estimates about 20%) MMoral principles determined by the person are used to determine right and wrong and may disagree with societal norms. EE.g. A reported who wrote a controversial story goes to jail rather than reveal the source’s identity

50. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

51. Moral Development of Women © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Kohlberg’s research primarily used men  Carol Gilligan (1996) argues that a fundamental difference exists in the way each gender views moral behavior  Morality of caring

52. Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Identity versus role confusion  Time of major testing, as adolescents try to determine what is unique and special about themselves  Intimacy versus isolation  Developing close relationships

53. Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Generativity versus stagnation  Contributions to one’s family, community, work, and society, assisting the development of the younger generation  Ego-integrity versus despair  Reviewing life’s successes and failures

54. Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

55. Adolescent Suicide  FACTS:  Third leading cause of death for adolescents  Male adolescents are 5 times more likely to commit suicide than females, although females attempt suicide more often than males  Rate higher among whites than nonwhites  WARNING SIGNS  School problems  Frequent incidents of self- destructive behavior  Loss of appetite or excessive eating  Withdrawal from others  Sleeping problems  Signs of depression  Preoccupation with death  Putting affairs in order  Announcement of thoughts of suicide © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

56. Adolescent Suicide © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

57. Gender and Sex SSex SSexual anatomy and behavior GGender The perception of being male or female

58.  Gender roles The set of expectations, defined by a particular society, that indicate what is appropriate behavior for men and women

59. Gender and Sex  Sexism  Negative attitudes and behavior toward a person that are based on that person’s gender  Women earn about 20% less then men

60. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Differences  Personality factors  Degree of aggressiveness-boys tend to be more aggressive  Self-esteem-boys tend to have higher self-esteem  Verbal and nonverbal communication styles-men communicate more power and dominance and women communicate more cooperation

61. Gender Differences  Cognitive skills  IQ scores, learning, memory, problem solving, and concept- formation skills are about the same.  Biological and evolutionary factors  Androgen  Estrogen © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

62. Sources of Gender Differences  The social environment  Socialization Process by which an individual learn the rules and norms of appropriate behavior  The educational system treats boys and girls differently, often favoring boys over girls

63. Early and Middle Adulthood © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Hormone therapy for menopause  Poses several dangers  Medical consensus Younger women with severe menopausal symptoms ought to consider HT on a short-term basis For older women, it provides little benefit, and potential harm

64. Early and Middle Adulthood © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  The peak of health (18 – 25)  Body begins to become slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease at age 25  Menopause  The point at which they stop menstruating and are no longer fertile

65. Social Development © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Midlife transition  During their early forties, as the idea that their life will end becomes prominent, people may face a Midlife transition where they begin to question their lives. Midlife crisis  Feelings of dissatisfaction with one’s life in the face of physical aging may bring about a Midlife crisis

66. Marriage, Children, and Divorce  Two-fifths of children will experience the breakup of the parents’ marriage before they are 18 years old  More than one quarter of all family households are now headed by one parent © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

67. Changing Roles of Men and Women © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Close to 75% of all married women with school-age children are now employed outside the home  Women’s “second shift”  Women who work full-time and also carry most of the responsibility for child-care

68. The Later Years of Life: Growing Old © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

69. The Later Years of Life: Physical Changes  Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging  Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently as people age  Waste by-products of energy production eventually accumulate, and mistakes are made when cells divide  Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging  Suggest that there is a built-in time limit to the reproduction of human cells, and that after a certain time cells stop dividing or become harmful to the body © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

70. The Social World of Late Adulthood  Disengagement theory of aging  Aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

71. The Social World of Late Adulthood  Activity theory of aging  Suggests that the people who age most successfully are those who maintain their interests, activities, and level of social interaction they experienced during middle adulthood © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

72. Memory Changes in Late Adulthood © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Fluid intelligence declines over time Crystallized intelligence remain steady and in some cases improve

73. Memory Changes in Late Adulthood © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.  Alzheimer’s disease  Progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

74. Adjusting to Death  Denial  Anger  Bargaining  Depression  Acceptance © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.