1. 12-2: Adolescent Cognitive Development Finish Middle Childhood Social and Emotional Development Parenting Style Divorce and Parent absence Siblings relations School Biological Changes in Adolescences Norms Hormones Appearance Neurological Changes Body image/social relationships Thinking in Adolescence Piaget’s Theory Pendulum Problem, All possible combinations, Inertia How pervasive is Formal Operations Other approaches to Adolescent cognition Adolescent egocentrism Moral Reasoning Reminder about Piaget’s theory Kohlber’s theory Giligan Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. The Family Parent-child relationships change markedly during this time. Parents give children more responsibilities. Parents no longer explicitly, continuously direct children. The hallmark of effective parenting is keeping track of children ’ s whereabouts and providing supervision & direction when needed. Parents influence by how they supervise.

3. Parenting Styles Baumrind Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Maccoby and Martin Frequency of conflict over goals Balance of resolution Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4. Parenting Styles & Child Development Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning. Their children score higher on agency. Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers. Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys. Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning. Their children score higher on agency. Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers. Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys. Agency: The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events. Agency: The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.

5. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Several factors encourage harmonious parent- child relationships: understanding legitimacy of parents ’ authority grasping that parents have more experience grasping parents ’ decisions are usually intended for children ’ s own good empathy shown by caring, responsive parents

6. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce Factors that promote good outcomes for children after divorce: ongoing contact with both parents an end to parental conflict cooperation between parents regarding child care custodial parent ’ s emotional well-being good relationships in any stepfamilies

7. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Sibling and peer relationships differ in important ways: There is usually a greater age disparity between friends. One of the siblings tends to get more power and privileges. In middle childhood, friendships rarely cross gender boundaries.

8. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Emotional Qualities of Sibling Relationships Competition for parents ’ attention and approval is common. Sibling strife based on social comparison intensifies after about age 8. Rate of conflict is higher with siblings than with peers. Younger siblings see older ones as controllers and facilitators.

9. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Factors influencing quality of sibling relationships: closeness in age gender composition stress personalities preferential treatment by parents

10. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Emotional ambivalence common among siblings offers important learning: When siblings fight, they cannot simply end their relationship. They can provide mutual support. Older siblings may be assigned the role of caring for younger siblings. Adopting role of boss may help older siblings practice leadership skills.

11. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The School School provides important context for socialization in cultural values. Family & school factors affect school achievement & adjustment. School achievement & adjustment predict later mental health. After-care arrangements are important, with impact depending to some extent on socioeconomic status.

12. Adolescence Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

13. Early adolescence from beginning of puberty to about age 13 most of the major physical changes of adolescence and accompanying changes in relationships with parents and peers Middle adolescence ages 14-16 increasing independence, preparation for adult occupations or further education Late adolescence 17 to early adulthood continued preparation for adulthood, often in college or other educational settings

14. Biological Changes During Adolescence

15. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Puberty: Norms & Individual Differences Puberty: The period during which a child changes from a sexually immature person to one who is capable of reproduction. Puberty: The period during which a child changes from a sexually immature person to one who is capable of reproduction. Menarche: The onset of menstruation. Menarche: The onset of menstruation. Spermarche: The first ejaculation of mobile sperm. Spermarche: The first ejaculation of mobile sperm.

16. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. In the U.S. & Europe, average age of menarche is 12.5 years. Ovulation does not usually begin until several months after menarche. Most boys in the U.S. reach spermarche by age 14. Puberty is not a single event, but a more extended period when sexual organs & other characteristics develop rapidly. Puberty: Norms & Individual Differences

17. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Onset of puberty is influenced by: heredity nutrition stress family conflict exercise disease Puberty: Norms & Individual Differences

18. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hormonal Control of Puberty Pituitary glandA small gland at the base of the brain that plays a major role in regulating other glands ’ hormonal output. HypothalamusPart of the brain that regulates many body functions, including production of pituitary hormones. GonadotropinsPituitary hormones that affect hormone output by the gonads. GonadsThe sex glands: Testes in men and ovaries in women.

19. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Changes in Appearance at Puberty Secondary sex characteristics: Physical features that differentiate adult males from adult females but are not directly involved in reproduction. Secondary sex characteristics: Physical features that differentiate adult males from adult females but are not directly involved in reproduction. Pheromones: Chemical scents used by members of the same species to communicate a message, such as readiness to mate. Pheromones: Chemical scents used by members of the same species to communicate a message, such as readiness to mate.

20. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stages of Puberty 1Elevation of papilla (nipple) only. 2Breast buds appear. 3Breast & areola continue to enlarge. 4Areola & papilla elevate above the mound of the breast to form a secondary mound. 5Papilla continues to project, but areola recesses to general contour of the breast. Female Breast Development

21. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stages of Puberty 1Penis, scrotum, & testes stay in same proportion as early childhood. 2Scrotum & testes enlarge; scrotum darkens. 3Penis grows, primarily in length. 4Growth of penis includes width & enlargement of glans. 5Genitals attain adult size & shape. Male Genital Development

22. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Neurological Changes at Puberty Between childhood and adulthood, the brain shows two major changes: 1. decline in plasticity 2. increase in efficiency Between childhood and adulthood, the brain shows two major changes: 1. decline in plasticity 2. increase in efficiency Plasticity: Ability of brain regions to take on new functions. Plasticity: Ability of brain regions to take on new functions.

23. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Neurological Changes at Puberty Changes that may contribute to loss of plasticity: 1. hemispheric specialization 2. decrease in number of synapses Changes that may contribute to loss of plasticity: 1. hemispheric specialization 2. decrease in number of synapses Hemispheric specialization: Process by which certain brain functions become localized in either the right or left side of the brain. Hemispheric specialization: Process by which certain brain functions become localized in either the right or left side of the brain.

24. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Impacts of Puberty Change Puberty and Body Image Boys who are more physically mature have more positive body image perceive themselves as more attractive have athletic advantage Girls who are more physically mature have poorer body image and tend to think themselves too heavy because of increase & redistribution of fat

25. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Impacts of Puberty Change Puberty and Social Relationships increased interest in opposite sex increased likelihood of dating & sex conflicts with mothers often increase increasing feelings of autonomy from their parents

26. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Impacts of Puberty Change Puberty and Problem Behaviors Various problem behaviors become more common at puberty, especially for early- maturing girls, who show more: truancy academic trouble drug and alcohol use running away shoplifting Clip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.

27. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Timing of Puberty and Overall Adjustment Early-maturing girls tend to have lower self-esteem. Long-term effects of early maturation for girls are not completely clear. Late-maturing boys tend to be less popular and less self-confident. Early-maturing boys are often viewed as more competent, poised, & successful.

28. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Direct and Indirect Effects of Puberty Puberty produces both unseen internal and visible external physical changes. Through hormones, internal changes directly affect: feelings behaviors sexual desire External changes affect these too, through their impact on body image and reactions they trigger in others.

29. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Changes in Thinking During Adolescence

30. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Major cognitive changes: 1. Applying logical thinking to the possible (what might exist), not just to the real (what does exist). 2. Ability to think about relationships among mentally constructed concepts. 3. More logical & systematic thinking. Hypothetico-deductive thinking: Ability to think of hypothetical solutions to a problem and to formulate a systematic plan for deducing which of these solutions is correct. Hypothetico-deductive thinking: Ability to think of hypothetical solutions to a problem and to formulate a systematic plan for deducing which of these solutions is correct.

31. Cognitive Development in adolescence Piaget’s approach Alternatives to Piaget Adolescent egocentrism Moral development Piaget’s approach Kohlbergs approach Critiques of Kohlberg Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

32. Piaget ’ s Theory of Formal Operations Propositional logic (formal operations) involves combining individual statements (propositions) to reach logical conclusions. Formal operations allow them to think more abstractly and systematically. They are able to think about logical implications in a problem, whether grounded in reality or not. Formal operations: In Piaget ’ s theory, a set of principles of formal logic on which the cognitive advances of adolescence are based. Formal operations: In Piaget ’ s theory, a set of principles of formal logic on which the cognitive advances of adolescence are based.

33. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Piaget ’ s Experiments Piaget had youngsters of different ages conduct science experiment with an apparatus or set of materials to test their reasoning abilities. The Law of Floating Bodies Study The Pendulum Study The All Possible Combinations Study Discovering inertia by negations

34. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Is Piaget ’ s View Correct? Contrary to Piaget ’ s expectations, training in formal operations is effective under some circumstances, perhaps because it encourages the display of already existing competencies rather than teaching entirely new skills.

35. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Other Approaches to Adolescent Cognition Research on adolescents ’ information- processing abilities indicates continuing improvement in attention and memory skills, due to: increased capacity improved cognitive strategies automatization of basic mental processes expanded knowledge base

36. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Selective attention Focusing attention on relevant information despite distractions. Divided attention Paying attention to two tasks at the same time. AutomatizationTendency for basic cognitive processes to become less effortful and more automatic with practice. Cognitive socialization The influence of social environment on development of cognitive skills.

37. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Social Cognitive Changes of Adolescence

38. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Adolescent egocentrism Teenagers ’ assumption they are the focus of everyone ’ s attention and that their experiences, thoughts, & feelings are unique. Imaginary audience Teenagers ’ unjustified concern they are the focus of others ’ attention. Personal fable Teenagers ’ exaggerated belief in their own uniqueness.

39. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Piaget ’ s Model 1. Amoral stage, until about age 7. 2. Moral realism, treating morality as absolute and moral constraints as unalterable. 3. Autonomous morality, seeing morality as relative to the situation, usually attained in late childhood or early adolescence. Moral reasoning: Thinking & making judgments about the morally right course of action in a given situation. Moral reasoning: Thinking & making judgments about the morally right course of action in a given situation. Moral Reasoning

40. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Moral Reasoning Kohlberg ’ s Model Preconventional morality 1. Obedience & punishment orientation 2. Hedonistic & instrumental orientation Conventional morality 3. Good-boy, nice-girl orientation 4. Authority or law-and-order orientation Postconventional (principled) morality 5. Social contract orientation 6. Hierarchy of principles orientation

41. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stage theories of moral reasoning have been criticized because of: weak connection between moral thought & moral action methods used to assess moral reasoning possible gender biases possible cultural biases

42. weak connection between moral thought & moral action Hartshorne & May (1928) Prentice, Moral development and delinquency Follow up on individuals who dropped out of the Milgram experiment Froming, Moral Development and conformity Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

43. Methods used to assess moral reasoning Kurtines & Grief (1974) reliability James Rest— Changes in the scoring manual Objective Test of Moral Reasoning Gender Differences -- Carol Giligan (1982) claimed women focus more on caring and men more on justice. Wark & Krebs (1996) found the opposite from Giligan—that women were more advanced Cuture—traditional cultures score lower Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

44. Overview Major cognitive advances of adolescence include: Logical thinking is now applied to the possible, not just the real. Ability to think about relationships among concepts emerges. Adolescents ’ thinking become even more logical and systematic. Photo copyright © 2003 Travis Langley, Henderson State University