1. Elements of Poetry

2. Rhyme
The basic definition of rhyme is two words that sound alike. The vowel sound of two words is the same, but the initial consonant sound is different.
Rhyme is perhaps the most recognizable convention of poetry, but its function is often overlooked.
Rhyme helps to unify a poem; it also repeats a sound that links one concept to another, thus helping to determine the structure of a poem. When two subsequent lines rhyme, it is likely that they are thematically linked, or that the next set of rhymed lines signifies a slight departure. Especially in modern poetry, for which conventions aren't as rigidly determined as they were during the English Renaissance or in the eighteenth century, rhyme can indicate a poetic theme or the willingness to structure a subject that seems otherwise chaotic. Rhyme works closely with meter in this regard.
There are varieties of rhyme: internal rhyme functions within a line of poetry, for example, while the more common end rhyme occurs at the end of the line and at the end of some other line, usually within the same stanza if not in subsequent lines. There are true rhymes (bear, care) and slant rhymes (lying, mine). There are also a number of predetermined rhyme schemes associated with different forms of poetry. Once you have identified a rhyme scheme, examine it closely to determine (1) how rigid it is, (2) how closely it conforms to a predetermined rhyme scheme (such as a sestina), and especially (3) what function it serves.
Rhyme in "My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke:
Identify the rhyme scheme (pattern) and explain how each rhyme contributes to the poem's meaning or unity.
"dizzy” and “easy"
These are slant rhymes—that is, inexact rhymes—rather than the true rhymes that dominate the rest of the poem, except for lines 5 and 7. The early stanzas of the poem feel looser as a result.
"pans”, “countenance"
Like lines 2 and 4, the last words of these lines constitute the only slant rhymes in the poem. As above, the words do rhyme, but in order to hear the rhyme, the ear has to bend the sounds slightly.
"shirt”, “dirt"
The second half of the poem is generally tougher, with short, hard-sounding words and true end rhyme. There are no slant rhymes here; the structure is less relaxed, which leaves the reader feeling tense and uneasy
1). How does this examination of rhyme change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples of rhyme in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
Practice

3. Assonance
If alliteration occurs at the beginning of a word and rhyme at the end, assonance takes the middle territory.
Assonance occurs when the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound in a nearby word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different.
Tune" and "June" are rhymes; "tune" and "food" are assonant. The function of assonance is frequently the same as end rhyme or alliteration: All serve to give a sense of continuity or fluidity to the verse. Assonance might be especially effective when rhyme is absent: It gives the poet more flexibility, and it is not typically used as part of a predetermined pattern. Like alliteration, it does not so much determine the structure or form of a poem; rather, it is more ornamental.
Assonance in "The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop:
Once the reader is attuned to the frequent assonance the poem employs, it becomes easy to hear the beauty in the poem. The language throughout the poem is beautiful, and the assonance serves to highlight that beauty.
"He hadn't fought at all./ He hung a grunting weight"
Since "The Fish" does not employ end rhyme, the ornamental features of language it does use stand out. In these two short, straightforward lines, the speaker uses assonance twice (fought/all, hung/grunting) in order to call our attention to this feature.
"his brown skin hung in strips"
Another example of assonance here following closely on the heels of the two examples in lines 6 and 7 (skin/strips) demonstrates the speaker's willingness to use unordinary sounding language to describe what might initially seem an ordinary experience. The use of the word "hung" in this line also echoes line 7, unifying them further.
"shapes like full-blown roses/ stained and lost through age"
Another pair of lines that employ assonance (blown/roses, stained/age) occurs just as the speaker has described the fish as something potentially ugly; this ugliness is undercut by the sonorous beauty of assonance, made more striking in poetry that does not employ end rhyme.
"rags of green weed hung down"
This is the sixth line in this stanza to employ assonance, and the third one to contain the word "hung." The effect of all of these lines is to prepare us for the revelation at the end of the poem. All of the descriptions in these lines are set up to provoke disgust in the reader; the rags and weeds of this line are no exception. Yet assonance shows that the speaker takes a certain pleasure in language, and the reader is invited to share this pleasure. Eventually we are invited to see how an oil slick on the surface of a puddle of bilge can be transformed into an ecstatic rainbow vision, and this early assonance is one of the elements that initially prepares us to accept that transformation.
1). How does this examination of assonance change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples of assonance in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
Practice

4. Alliteration
Alliteration occurs when the initial sounds of a word, beginning either with a consonant or a vowel, are repeated in close succession.
The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words within the same sentence or line. Note that the words only have to be close to one another: Alliteration that repeats and attempts to connect a number of words is little more than a tongue-twister.
The function of alliteration, like rhyme, might be to accentuate the beauty of language in a given context, or to unite words or concepts through a kind of repetition. Alliteration, like rhyme, can follow specific patterns. Sometimes the consonants aren't always the initial ones, but they are generally the stressed syllables. Alliteration is less common than rhyme, but because it is less common, it can call our attention to a word or line in a poem that might not have the same emphasis otherwise.
“Pretty woman” sounds different from “lovely lady,” although both mean essentially the same thing (“attractive adult female”). A writer might choose “lovely lady” for its triple alliteration and its rhyme; another writer might reject that phrase for the same reason (probably calling it “too flowery”).
Alliteration in "To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell:
The speaker uses alliteration to make his words more alluring when wooing his lover, but he dispenses with it when contemplating the reality of death in order to make his words even more chilling.
"Had we but world enough...pass our long love’s day"
There is a striking amount of alliteration throughout the poem, especially throughout the first section. Each of the first four lines contains alliteration: “We”/“world” (1), “coyness”/“crime” (2), “we would”/“which way” (3), “long”/“love’s” (4). This alliteration adds to the speaker’s playfulness and the poem’s beauty in the sections in which he is trying to woo his lover; it appropriately disappears in the gloomy middle section, when the speaker contemplates the grave.
"But thirty thousand...last age should show"
As at its beginning, the end of the poem’s first section contains a lot of alliteration. “Thirty thousand” (16) and “should show” (18) are emphatic and unusual sounds, repeated for emphasis and, as above, for playfulness. The speaker is showing off to his lover here, trying to hold her attention just before his argument shifts into its next phase.
"Thus, though we cannot make our sun / Stand still, yet we will make him run."
Leaving aside the repeated “m” sound of “make,” there are three examples of alliteration in the final two lines. Having abandoned the device of alliteration during the middle section of the poem, the speaker returns to it here and ends with a flourish. “Thus” and “though” (which also alliterate with “Thorough” in line 44), “sun”/“Stand still,” and “we will” are a dazzling flourish of alliteration that conclude the poem and are meant to impress the listener. Also, because the tempo of the final section is faster at the end of the poem than it is at the beginning, it makes sense that devices such as alliteration become even more compressed. The effect is like the grand finale at a fireworks display.
1). How does this examination of alliteration change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples of alliteration in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
Practice

5. Onomatopoeia Words that sound like their meaning.
Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually sound like the sounds they describe.
Remarque uses onomatopoeia to suggest the dying soldier’s agony, his last gasp described as a “gurgling rattle.”
For example, buzz, moo, pow

6. Repetition
The repetition of the same word throughout the poem to emphasize significance.
Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea.
The repetition of the words “What if…” at the beginning of each line reinforces the speaker’s confusion and fear.

7. Style The way the poem is written.
Includes length of meters, number of stanzas along with rhyme techniques and rhythm.
Free-style, ballad, haiku, etc.
Stanza - is the chunking of the lines, may be different in each poem (no set number of lines in a stanza)

8. Meter
Meter is the rhythm established by a poem, and it is usually dependent not only on the number of syllables in a line but also on the way those syllables are accented.
This rhythm is often described as a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
The rhythmic unit is often described as a foot; patterns of feet can be identified and labeled. A foot may be iambic, which follows a pattern of unstressed/stressed syllables. For example, read aloud: "The DOG went WALKing DOWN the ROAD and BARKED." Because there are five iambs, or feet, this line follows the conventions of iambic pentameter (pent = five), the common form in Shakespeare's time.
Stressed syllables are conventionally labeled with a "/" mark and unstressed syllables with a "U" mark.
Meter can be awfully technical, and you can get confused trying to sort out a spondee from a dactyl. (Those aren't dinosaur names.) To be attuned to meter, though, you should probably concentrate first on the internal "beat" of a poem and add the scientific terms later. A guitar teacher might insist that you tap your feet rather than learn to play with a metronome. The same advice may be applied to reading poetry: understand a poem's metrical logic, then get technical, if necessary.
Meter in "To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell:
The meter is strikingly even throughout: eight syllables per line consisting of four iambs, or feet (that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable). It is textbook iambic tetrameter. Yet somehow the tempo of the poem picks up notably even though the meter remains the same. Playing as he does with the listener’s sense of time, the speaker is able to maintain a regulated meter while intensifying the poem’s pace to support his argument.
"Had we but world enough, and time, / This coyness, lady, were no crime."
In the first section of the poem, the speaker does not seem as conscious of “Time’s wingèd chariot” (22), and he spends time fancifully describing how they would behave if there were world enough and time, as if that were the case. Despite the even meter of these first two lines (which is maintained throughout the poem), he does “pause” in these first two lines when he inserts commas, interrupting himself to demonstrate how comfortable he is with the slow passage of time.
"Let us roll all our strength and all"
Although the meter of this line is the same as every other line in the poem, it mirrors the speaker’s breathlessness. It is possible for the pace of the poem to quicken even though the meter stays the same through the absence of punctuation and the concentration of one-syllable words. This line also comes right after a sentence that runs for eight straight lines without much of a pause: It is clear that the speaker is in a hurry and almost out of breath.
1). How does this examination of meter change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other metrical shifts or irregularities in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
Practice

9. Tone
The tone of a poem is roughly equivalent to the mood it creates in the reader.
The apparent emotional state, or “attitude,” of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the narrative voice; not to the author or characters. It must be described or identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect to simply state, “The author uses tone.”
The poem has a bitter and sardonic tone, revealing the speaker’s anger and resentment.
The tone of Gulliver’s narration is unusually matter-of-fact, as he seems to regard these bizarre and absurd occurrences as ordinary or commonplace.
Think of an actor reading a line such as "I could kill you." He can read it in a few different ways: If he thinks the proper tone is murderous anger, he might scream the line and cause the veins to bulge in his neck. He might assume the tone of cool power and murmur the line in a low, even voice. Perhaps he does not mean the words at all and laughs as he says them. Much depends on interpretation, of course, but the play will give the actor clues about the tone just as a poem gives its readers clues about how to feel about it.
The tone may be based on a number of other conventions that the poem uses, such as meter or repetition. If you find a poem exhilarating, maybe it's because the meter mimics galloping. If you find a poem depressing, that may be because it contains shadowy imagery.
Tone is not in any way divorced from the other elements of poetry; it is directly dependent on them.
Tone in "The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop:
There are marked shifts in tone over the course of the poem, from the aloofness of the early lines to the near rapture of the penultimate line, “rainbow, rainbow, rainbow!” Such a dramatic shift leads us to understand that the poem is largely about the transformation of the speaker’s attitude.
"He didn’t fight"
Bishop’s poem begins with a tone of aloofness, as if the speaker is saying, “I caught a fish. No big deal.” The lines are short and clipped. Later, as the speaker gradually becomes more descriptive, the tone shifts to accommodate longer, more specific words and looser, more ornamental lines.
"the terrible oxygen / —the frightening gills"
The speaker’s language becomes more descriptive as the poem progresses and her tone less detached. Her free use of strong adjectives like terrible and frightening contributes to our awareness of this shift.
"was rainbow, rainbow,w rainbow!"
The shifts in tone that occur when the speaker looks into the fish’s eyes and observes the hooks in its mouth culminate in this almost ecstatic revelation of beauty. The repetition of “rainbow” and the exclamation point that follows emphasize the speaker’s exultation and indicate the extent of her transformation.
1). How does this examination of tone change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Can you find other significant shifts in tone or words that set a certain tone in the poem? What do they contribute to the poem?
practice

10. Metaphor
Closely related to similes, metaphors immediately identify one object or idea with another, in one or more aspects.
The meaning of a poem frequently depends on the success of a metaphor.
A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another.
Shakespeare often uses light as a metaphor for Juliet; Romeo refers to her as the sun, as “a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear,” and as a solitary dove among crows.
Like a simile, a metaphor expands the sense and clarifies the meaning of something. "He's such a pig," you might say, and the listener wouldn't immediately think, "My friend has a porcine boyfriend," but rather, "My friend has a human boyfriend who is (a) a slob, (b) a voracious eater, (c) someone with crude attitudes or tastes, or (d) a chauvinist." In any case, it would be clear that the speaker wasn't paying her boyfriend a compliment, but unless she clarifies the metaphor, you might have to ask, "In what sense?"
English Renaissance poetry is characterized by metaphors that turn into elaborate conceits, or extended metaphors. Poets like John Donne and William Shakespeare extended their comparisons brilliantly, with the effect that the reader was dazzled.
Contemporary poets tend to be more economical with their metaphors, but they still use them as one of the chief elements that distinguishes poetry from less lofty forms of communication.
There is more than one metaphor in “To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell, but the poem is built around a central metaphor, “Time’s wingèd chariot,” which is both central to the speaker’s argument and near the physical center of the poem. The encroachment of time is vastly important to his argument, and its nuances can only be expressed through a metaphor.
"My vegetable love"
The speaker compares his love to vegetative growth, which is slow and unconscious. Of course, this metaphor is ironic because it is in the conditional tense; the speaker knows that he does not have world enough or time, and his impassioned love grows quickly and consciously.
"Time's wingèd chariot"
A winged chariot is unreal—chariots are ground transportation—and it is also a link to Roman mythology: Apollo’s flying chariot drove the sun. The winged chariot is a metaphor for the power of time, for the speed of time (a winged chariot could presumably move quickly), and for the inevitability of time (the sun rises and sets regularly every day). The metaphor expands and enhances the cliché “time flies” and sets the darker tone of the second section of the speaker’s argument.
"soul transpires / At every pore with instant fires"
The lover’s soul breathes through her body with “instant fires,” obviously not intended as literal flames on her skin, but rather to demonstrate how the feeling of ardent desire is like heat. The fact that there are many fires instead of just one, and that they are “instant” rather than constant, underscores the transience of the moment, which is the subject of the poem.
1). How does this examination of metaphor change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other metaphors in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
practice

11. Simile
The word ‘like’ signifies a direct comparison between two things that are alike in a certain way.
Usually one of the elements of a simile is concrete and the other abstract.
Have you ever noticed how many times your friends say, "It's like . . ." or "I'm like "? They aren't always creating similes, but they are attempting to simulate something (often a conversation).
An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words “like” or “as,” but not always.
The simile in line 10 describes the lunar eclipse: “The moon appeared crimson, like a drop of blood hanging in the sky.”
The character’s gait is described in the simile: “She hunched and struggled her way down the path, the way an old beggar woman might wander about.”
"My love is like a red, red rose" writes Robert Burns. He's talking about the rose's beauty when it's in full bloom (he tells us that it's May in the next line). "Love is like a rose" is a simpler version of the simile, but it's a more dangerous version. (A black rose? A dead rose in December? The thorns of a rose?) Sometimes similes force us to consider how the two things being compared are dissimilar, but the relationship between two dissimilar things can break down easily, so similes must be rendered delicately and carefully.
Simile in "To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell
There are two similes in the poem, and the most striking thing about them is that they both occur in the final section, in rapid succession. This is the speaker’s most desperate hour, and he is trying to introduce his ideas in quick bursts that are full of imagery in order to make them easily understood. At the same time, he uses the second simile to introduce an aggressive, passionate image that had been buried until this point.
"the youthful hue / Sits on the skin like morning dew"
This simile is meant to make the situation crystal clear to the listener; it almost encapsulates the speaker’s argument. The simile is a fairly standard comparison of the listener to nature: The morning dew, like the speaker’s youth, is ephemeral.
"like amorous birds of prey"
This simile reveals the speaker’s desperation and his rising passion, or barely contained lust. “Birds of prey” are generally not considered “amorous,” just the opposite. Here the speaker is trying to introduce a bold, aggressive image into the mind of his mistress in order to stir her passions.
1). How does this examination of similes change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Why do you think there are more metaphors than similes in the poem?
practice

12. Irony
As a figure of speech, irony refers to a difference between the way something appears and what is actually true.
Situational irony: Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences. (Note: Most of the situations in the Alanis Morissette song are not ironic at all, which may actually make the song ironic in itself.)
Verbal irony: Where the meaning of a specific expression is, or is intended to be, the exact opposite of what the words literally mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often accompanies verbal irony, but they are not the same thing.) Orwell gives this torture and brainwashing facility the ironic title, “Ministry of Love.”
Dramatic Irony: Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the characters in the story are not aware.
Macbeth responds with disbelief when the weird sisters call him Thane of Cawdor; ironically, unbeknownst to him, he had been granted that title by king Duncan in the previous scene.
Jem and Scout are saved by Boo Radley, who had ironically been an object of fear and suspicion to them at the beginning of the novel.
Part of what makes poetry interesting is its indirectness, its refusal to state something simply as "the way it is."
Irony allows us to say something but to mean something else, whether we are being sarcastic, exaggerating, or understating. A woman might say to her husband ironically, "I never know what you're going to say," when in fact she always knows what he will say. This is sarcasm, which is one way to achieve irony.
Irony is generally more restrained than sarcasm, even though the effect might be the same. The woman of our example above might simply say, "Interesting," when her husband says something that really isn't interesting. She might not be using sarcasm in this case, and she might not even be aware that she is being ironic. A listener who finds the husband dull would probably understand the irony, though.
The key to irony is often the tone, which is sometimes harder to detect in poetry than in speech.
Irony is easier to communicate in speech than in writing. Consider the following circumstance: A child is playing violin and his aunt says, "He is obviously not ready for the youth orchestra." We don't know whether the aunt is speaking ironically or not; if the child is playing poorly, then the tone is straight. If the child is playing perfectly, then the tone is ironic. Much depends on the way the aunt pronounces "obviously."
Let's assume all of the following statements are meant to be read ironically. You are a poet: You want to communicate irony, but you don't want to overdo it, for heavy-handed irony isn't much fun to read. How much context would you have to add in order to ensure that the tone is ironic but that your touch is light?
Irony in "The Fish” by Elizabeth Bishop:
The final line of “The Fish” is strongly ironic: Why would the speaker go to such trouble to catch the fish if her aim was to let it go? The final gesture is understated and unexpected, and it causes us to reevaluate the significance of catching the fish in the first place.
"He didn't fight. / He hadn't fought at all"
The poem begins with this unexciting observation that is also ironic because later descriptions present the fish as a great warrior displaying its hooks and severed lines like war medals.
"and victory filled up"
The speaker is presumably filled with “victory” because she has caught this legendary fish, but we recall from the beginning of the poem that “he hadn't fought at all.” Catching the fish was just luck rather than strength. Is she truly victorious or not? The fact that she lets the fish go at the end might cheapen the sense of victory (victors are boasters by nature), or it might bring that victory to a higher level (the appreciation of beauty outweighs any mundane victory).
1). How does this examination of irony change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples of irony in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
practice

13. Symbol
A symbol works two ways: It is something itself, and it also suggests something deeper.
It is crucial to distinguish a symbol from a metaphor: Metaphors are comparisons between two seemingly dissimilar things; symbols associate two things, but their meaning is both literal and figurative. A metaphor might read, "His life was an oak tree that had just lost its leaves"; a symbol might be the oak tree itself, which would evoke the cycle of death and rebirth through the loss and growth of leaves.
Some symbols have widespread, commonly accepted values that most readers should recognize: Apple pie suggests innocence or homespun values; ravens signify death; fruit is associated with sensuality. Yet none of these associations is absolute, and all of them are really determined by individual cultures and time (would a Chinese reader recognize that apple pie suggests innocence?).
No symbols have absolute meanings, and, by their nature, we cannot read them at face value. Rather than beginning an inquiry into symbols by asking what they mean, it is better to begin by asking what they could mean, or what they have meant.
It is important to consider the qualities and associations of a symbol within a poem. If you are looking into the symbolic value of an apple, for instance, you may begin by saying, “Sweet, crisp fruit, juicy, tastes good in the fall, red and white in sharp contrast.” Those are a few of an apple’s qualities. You should be able to go beyond those associations into some others you have with apples, like “Adam and Eve: loss of innocence or gaining of knowledge.” Or “Sir Isaac Newton and gravity.” Or “Snow White: temptation and danger.” One apple probably cannot signify all of these things, but along with the context surrounding it, you may get closer to an understanding of its symbolic value:
I took the apple from her hand
And ate it, feeling almost guilty
As the juice dripped down my chin.
It’s probably safe to eliminate Isaac Newton here: We seem to be pretty firmly in Eden. The next step is to examine that symbol for some of its other qualities and use them to begin to formulate an interpretation.
The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you can hold in your hand or draw a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must be something you can’t hold in your hand or draw a picture of.)
Golding uses symbols to represent the various aspects of human nature and civilization as they are revealed in the novel. The conch symbolizes order and authority, while its gradual deterioration and ultimate destruction metaphorically represent the boys’ collective downfall.
Symbol in "The Fish”
It seems likely that the fish is symbolic of something, because why else would the speaker pay so much attention to it? It strongly symbolizes power, or the potential for power, and the speaker’s interaction with the fish plays on the notion of power. Their interaction can also be seen as symbolic of human interaction with nature. The speaker finally lets the fish go, which proves that she is in control, but it is the fish’s strength, wisdom, and beauty that force her to let it go: It has innate qualities associated with nature that are larger than her.
"He didn’t fight. / He hadn’t fought at all"
As we explore the fish’s symbolism, we should not ignore its passivity (despite the hooks in its jaw). Fish are associated with freedom, because they must be caught before they can be controlled. They are also associated with the mysteries of nature: Some of the most enduring fantasies about nature’s power have to do with enormous fish that cannot be caught (as in Moby-Dick) or with horrible sea creatures. Although this fish is linked to these issues of freedom and control through its past, in this instance it is rendered powerless, almost anticlimactically.
"his gills were breathing in / the terrible oxygen"
The fish had been described as “a grunting weight” (7), rather lifeless. Here it is full of life, almost terrifyingly so. Its ability to be both of these things represents the mysteries of life and death, or the fine line between them. Fish are associated with Jesus in the Bible, whose promise of eternal life was represented by allegories such as the story of the loaves and fishes, in which a few fish provide sustenance for multitudes of people. In such a context, a fish can represent the benevolence of the Christian God. Fish are also an important evolutionary link; all life forms on earth developed from organisms in the sea. Through either interpretation, the fish’s association with life and its potential for death, as well as the fact that its life is suspended as it gulps for air while suspended in air, partially account for the speaker’s fascination with it.
"I admired his sullen face” and “if you could call it a lip"
In these two lines, the speaker displays symbolically another contradiction in the fish’s status. It is personified when she admires “his sullen face,” using a gender-specific pronoun (“his” as opposed to “its”); it is a face to be admired and even has an expression (“sullen”), as though the fish had control over its face in the same way a person would. Yet a few lines later, as she is describing the fish’s lip, the speaker calls this personification into question. Her control over the fish depends largely on what it represents to her. If it has human characteristics, the potential for control is much more significant than if it doesn't.
1). How does this examination of symbols change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples of symbols in the poem. What do they contribute to the work?
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14. Allegory
An allegory is a whole world of symbols. Within a narrative form, which can be either in prose or verse, an allegory tells a story that can be read symbolically.
Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event.
Lord of the Flies provides a compelling allegory of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the psyche through its sharply-defined main characters.
You may have encountered The Faerie Queen by Edmund Spenser, or a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne such as Rappacini’s Daughter, or maybe you’ve heard that The Wizard of Oz was originally an allegory. Interpreting an allegory is complicated because you need to be aware of what each symbol in the narrative refers to. Allegories thus reinforce symbolic meaning, but can also be appreciated as good stories regardless of their allegorical meaning.
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15. Denotation & Connotation
Denotation is when you mean what you say, literally.
Connotation is created when you mean something else, something that might be initially hidden. The connotative meaning of a word is based on implication, or shared emotional association with a word.
Greasy is a completely innocent word: Some things, like car engines, need to be greasy. But greasy contains negative associations for most people, whether they are talking about food or about people. Often there are many words that denote approximately the same thing, but their connotations are very different. Innocent and genuine both denote an absence of corruption, but the connotations of the two words are different: innocent is often associated with a lack of experience, whereas genuine is not. Connotations are important in poetry because poets use them to further develop or complicate a poem's meaning.
Can everything have a connotative meaning? Poets gravitate toward words with strong connotative possibilities because they are so rich with connotative possibility, like leaves falling in autumn (graceful and beautiful, but signifying a kind of death) or roses (undulating and sensual, but don't grab one by the stem). What is the connotation of, say, the following sentence ?:
The man drank whiskey quietly.
The denotative meaning is simple: a guy drank whiskey and didn"t make much noise. But to get at the connotative meaning, think about the emotional impact of the line, and about the associations you have with these words. Drinking can be celebratory; parties are sometimes accompanied by alcohol. But this man does not seem to be in the company of others. The word "quietly," in association with alcohol, seems to mean "alone." Intensifying this feeling is the fact that "the man" is anonymous to the reader (he isn't "Jack"), and he is drinking whiskey. How might it have been different if he were drinking scotch, a kind of whiskey that is generally associated with sophistication? What if he were drinking a milder, "fun" drink like a pina colada? "Quietly" and "whiskey" allow us to read a connotation into a simple sentence. If a poem makes you feel a certain way, ask yourself why.
Denotation and Connotation in "The Fish”
It is easier to see the denotative meaning than the connotative meaning of this poem. A woman catches a fish, holds it up for inspection, admires it, and then throws it back in the water. What exists beneath the surface of the poem largely depends on its tone, its rich description, and the emotional transformation of the speaker. Connotation in “The Fish” is subtle, but it should not be overlooked as a primary contributor to the poem’s overall effect.
"I caught a tremendous fish"
Despite the simplicity of the denotative meaning of “The Fish,” words with multiple connotations lend texture to the poem and contribute to its overall effect. Tremendous can mean “big” or “wonderful,” and the fish does exhibit both of these qualities. Another possible definition of tremendous is the capacity to make one tremble, derived from the Latin tremere, to tremble. This connotation of the word helps to explain the speaker’s ultimate response to the fish. “I caught a big fish” would not have the same effect.
"the terrible oxygen"
The word terrible, etymologically related to tremendous from the first line, has multiple connotations. This fish breathes oxygen like people, but this particular oxygen circulating in the air is perhaps “terrible” (as in “bad”) because the fish can’t access it with his gills. There is also something terrible about the fish himself—terrible in the sense of terrifying—that is associated with its attempt to breathe the air, and this sense is immediately reinforced through the speaker’s description of its “frightening gills” in the next line (24). The terrible quality of the fish also increases the speaker’s (and our) awe of it.
1). How does this examination of denotation and connotation change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other examples in the poem in which denotation or connotation is important. What do they contribute to the work?
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16. Diction
The writer's distinctive vocabulary choices and style of expression
The basic question to ask about vocabulary is "Is it simple or complex?" It's certainly possible to use "plain" language in a complicated way, especially in poetry, and it's equally possible to use complicated language in a simple way. It might help to think of diction as a web rather than a level: There's typically something deeper than a surface meaning to consider, so poetic diction is, by definition, complex.
Poetry can be like a recipe. If you were making a cake, you would first mix the dry ingredients together; then you would cream butter and sugar together, then add eggs, then stir the dry ingredients in. Why wouldn't you just drop all of the ingredients into a big bowl at the same time and mix? You'd end up with a lumpy mess, and no one wants a cake, or a poem, to be a lumpy mess. Word order matters—sometimes for clarity of meaning (a solo guitar isn't the same as a guitar solo) and sometimes for effect ("a dying man" is roughly the same as "a man, dying," but the effect of the word order matters). There are many different ways to order words and communicate approximately the same meaning, so readers should always question why poets have chosen a particular order, whether the choice is conventional or just the opposite.
A poet reworks diction, not always to the best effect. Let’s combine some of the altered vocabulary and syntax from above: From under the tree a lovely woman pilfered a fruit. Well, maybe, but the diction should be working toward a single effect, or enhancing an image, or accommodating meter.
Try rewriting the following simple phrases by altering diction (syntax, vocabulary, or both) while preserving the original sense. Think of each as a single line: You don't necessarily have to expand or elaborate to alter diction. What effect are you trying to achieve?
Diction in "To His Coy Mistress”
As with other poetic elements, the speaker’s vocabulary shifts as his argument goes through the three phases that make up the three sections of the poem. When the reader tries to understand the position of the listener, the poem’s occasionally difficult language becomes simpler to comprehend. The speaker’s diction changes, depending on whether he is trying to appeal to his lover, to flatter her, or to persuade her.
"Thou"
Poetry was more formal in the seventeenth century than it is today, and we need to take that fact into account when we assess the diction of Marvell’s verse. Much of what we find difficult in Marvell’s language can be attributed to the simple fact that the nuances of language change over time. We may be struck by the formal-sounding “Thou” and the use of “thy” throughout the poem, but again, this was common in seventeenth-century poetry.
"the Indian Ganges” and “Humber"
Initially, the speaker’s words are meant to impress his lover, so the speaker alludes to world geography. He also flatters her by placing her in an exotic—and ruby-laden—location (the Indian Ganges) while he remains in England (Humber).
"the flood” and “the conversion of the Jews"
Because the speaker’s objective during this section of the poem is to impress his lover, he alludes to biblical history (in addition to geography) as if to assert his worldliness and his intelligence. Such loftiness is absent from the next ten lines, when his objective is to flatter his lover.
"An hundred,” “Two hundred,” “thirty thousand"
The speaker’s use of numbers in this section of the poem demonstrates a shift in the speaker’s objective: He now wants to flatter more than impress. Consequently, his numbers only increase, until finally it requires “an age to every part” (17).
"Deserts,” “worms,” “dust,” and “ashes"
In this second section of the poem, the speaker reveals his awareness of time’s encroachment. He chooses language that might appeal to the listener’s emotions rather than her intellect. These words are much more physical and visceral than the distant, abstract language of the first two sections, whether the speaker is flaunting his knowledge of geography and biblical history or using numbers to stoke the flames of his listener’s vanity.
"Sits on the skin like morning dew"
In the final section (once the speaker has made his point), the speaker’s diction reverts to the relative ease of the first section, and he chooses words that are more playful and ornamental than those in the second section. The language in the final section is characterized by sweetness and, by the very end, a flaring passion.
1). How does this examination of diction change your understanding of how the poem works as a whole?
2). Find other parts of the poem in which diction is important. What do they contribute to the work?
I was awash in memories, reliving the innocence of times past.
Then, without warning, a knock came at the door.
They watched a pretty red sunset.
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17. Syntax
The study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences, and which determine their relative grammaticality
The order of words in a sentence
The basic question to ask about syntax is "Is it ordinary or unusual?"
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18. Imagery
Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery.
Also refers to specific and recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly be called imagery; the key is the appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual.
It is often advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the significance of the images themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere description.)
The author’s use of visual imagery is impressive; the reader is able to see the island in all its lush, colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed descriptions.
Think of an image as a picture or a sculpture, something concrete and representational within a work of art.
Literal images appeal to our sense of realistic perception, like a nineteenth-century landscape painting that looks "just like a photograph.” There are also figurative images that appeal to our imagination, like a twentieth-century modernist portrait that looks only vaguely like a person but that implies a certain mood.
Literal images saturate Samuel Coleridge's poem, "Kubla Khan: or, A Vision in a Dream":
So twice five miles of fertile ground
With walls and towers were girdled round:
And here were gardens bright with sinuous rills
Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree;
And there were forests ancient as the hills,
Enfolding sunny spots of greenery. (lines 6-11)
A figurative image begins T. S. Eliot's famous poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock":
Let us go then, you and I,
When the evening is spread out against the sky
Like a patient etherized upon a table;
To see the evening in the way Prufrock describes it requires an imaginative leap: He's doing much more than setting the scene and telling us that it's nighttime. We are encouraged to see stars, to feel the unconscious and infinite presence of the universe, but these things are only implied. In either case, poetic imagery alters or shapes the way we see what the poem is describing.
Even mundane objects can take on a special meaning when rendered as a poetic image. Consider:
A red balloon, bobbing uncertainly
On a string tied to the wrist
Of a weary boy
Breaks free, and floats hopefully skyward
Fading rapidly into a tiny blood spot.
Kids lose balloons, and it’s not tragic—unless you’re the kid! The hopefulness of the balloon, free at last, contrasts with the implied loss that the boy must feel. He is tired, perhaps worn out from a fair. Tragedy on a small scale (it’s a tiny blood spot, not a bloodbath) smarts nevertheless, and can happen quickly. All of these ideas are packed into a single, relatively simple image.
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19. Sources
Virtural Lit Interactive Poetry tutorial
Poem of Quotes

20. Practice: Rhyme Hear the sledges with the bells— Silver bells!
What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
In the icy air of night!
While the stars that oversprinkle
All the heavens, seem to twinkle
With a crystalline delight;
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of Runic rhyme,
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Bells, bells, bells—
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells
Rhyme for its own sake is really just decorative.
Identify the rhyme scheme (pattern) for the following poem and explain how each rhyme contributes to the poem's meaning or unity.
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21. Practice: Assonance Dazed Fruit Purple Reek Ready
Dice, Cramped, Grave, Fizzle
Fruit
Guitar, Loop, Function, Frump
Purple
Dazzle, Pretty, Pale, Hurt
Reek
Rickety, Quick, Beat, Screw
Ready
Set, Water, Seat, Raise
Instructions: Create assonance by selecting the appropriate word from the choices given. Remember, assonance occurs when the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound in another word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different.
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22. Practice: Alliteration
Sometimes snakes slithered past.
A majestic mountain was visible in the distance.
He hopped about happily.
The baker busily kneaded the bread.
They stayed up while the moon mounted in the sky.
In the following lines, come up with synonymous phrases for the alliterated phrase (don’t hesitate to use a thesaurus if you need to).
Then describe how the alliterated phrase differs from your less ornamental version.
What is gained in each? What is sacrificed?
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23. Practice: Meter I'm hap pi est when most a way
I can bear my soul from its home of clay
On a win dy night when the moon is bright
And the eye can wan der through worlds of light—
When I am not and none be side—
Nor earth nor sea nor cloud less sky—
But on ly spi rit wan dering wide
Through in fin ite im mens it y.
Scan the meter of the poem below by selecting "/" for stressed syllables and "U" for unstressed syllables in the pull=down menu above each syllable.
"I'm Happiest When Most Away" by Emily Brontë
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24. Practice: Tone Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
To bend with apples the mossed cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For summer has o’er-brimmed their clammy cells.
Consider the tone of the following excerpt from a poem by John Keats: "To Autumn"
The poem’s tone is luxuriant and contented. How might it change, however, if the last autumnal harvest had been poor and the speaker knew it would be hard to survive through the winter?
Try to rewrite this stanza with this hypothetical context of scarcity in mind. You might, for example, change "mellow" in the first line to “withering.”
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25. Practice: Metaphor Choose one: Chose one:
love, hunger, pain, happiness, sleep, desire
Chose one:
9 to 5 job, highway, tv dinner, flower, cloud, hammer
Then describe what the metaphor you have created reveals about the referent.
What's the best metaphor to describe your life thus far? Who are you, metaphorically? Fill in the following line:
I am...
Use a metaphor that is evocative and comprehensible. How far would you have to go to make your sense perfectly comprehensible to a reader? Try to be economical without being clichéd. The key is to make sense as well:
I am a jumbo shrimp,
Drenched in cocktail sauce
About to be swallowed
By an overweight lawyer
At a three-martini lunch.
This speaker feels: insignificant? powerless in the face of America's corporate elite? Maybe so; why, then, is he a "jumbo" shrimp? Why not a medium shrimp? Why not the olive in the martini, or better yet, the pimento in the olive? It's your metaphor for your life: choose it wisely. And remember to avoid those words that convert metaphors into similes (like and as).
PART 1: What does your metaphor reveal?
PART 2: Metaphor-Maker:
Choose a referent and a vehicle from the following.
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26. Practice: Simile A relationship like...
…a tractor trailer
…a dying fish
…a beer can full of cigarette butts
…when a branch whips your face
…beef stew
…summer in Dallas
…a newborn baby
…a ripe peach
…the smell of gasoline
…the distant stars
…golden coins
…a field of violently yellow sunflowers
A relationship like...
A professor as interesting as...
Her face was like...
A force as strong as...
A night as long as...
A comforting voice like...
It made him uneasy, like...
A job as appealing as...
Her eyes beckoned, like...
Try to create some similes. Remember that similes draw comparisons between two things that are alike in a certain way.
In the first column is the set-up for a few similes. In the second column are several possible ways to finish them. Try and match them up in such a way that your imagined reader might be able to understand the basis of the comparison. The goal is to expand the sense, not to confuse it. If none of the choices in the second column work for one of the set-ups, what would work?
Once you find a comparison that could work, try adding a second line that can clarify the relationship.
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27. Practice: Irony He loved the power of a speeding car.
Her mother waved enthusiastically from the doorway.
He closed the door softly behind him.
Example:
His house was clean and orderly.
One might add:
Just as he had always hoped,
His house was clean and orderly;
No dust settled on pictures
And there was no furniture to clutter the living room.
The refrigerator had no moldering vegetables
And the tub had no trace of her hair
That used to clump and cluster in the drain.
The only thing out of place
Was a piece of paper taped clumsily to the door
In sloppy handwriting: "ALL YOURS."
The cleanliness and orderliness of the man's house may have been what he had always wanted, but he most likely didn't want this solution to the problem of disorder. He is obviously a neat freak, and he wanted his wife or girlfriend to match his meticulous standards; ironically, he got what he said he wanted.
Explain the situation(s) that would make the following lines ironic.
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28. Practice: Symbol A blind man A dove A river The stars A play
A computer screen
Lightning
A mountain
What are the symbolic possibilities of the following things?
Consider both their inherent qualities and their cultural associations. Once you have brainstormed about their possibilities, consider how each item might be used as a symbol within a poem and compose a few lines that would give the symbol context and eliminate or complicate some of its symbolic possibilities.
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29. Practice: Allegory Consider the following story line: back
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who wanted to explore the world, so, one day she packed up her things and set out on a journey. She walked through the woods that surrounded her hut until she reached a road. Standing on the other side of the road was another traveler, a little boy.
When asked, he suggested that she go north, for that was where the big towns and more interesting sights were. So she walked along the road northward until she reached a large town. She spent several days exploring the town and meeting all kinds of strange people.
Finally she grew bored, and found a new road along which to travel. Standing at the edge of town was a young woman. When asked, she suggested that the little girl go east, for that was where the small cities and most interesting sights were. So the little girl walked eastward along the road until she came to a small city. She wandered through the city for a few weeks and saw all manner of new inventions. Finally she had seen everything, so she left and found a new road along which to travel. Waiting at an intersection was a man, who, when asked, suggested that the little girl go south, for that was where the big cities were.
So the little girl walked along the road going south for quite some time, until she came to a large city. There she talked with people from different countries who spoke different languages and had entirely different cultures. She learned a lot during her stay, but finally she had had enough of the city, so she found another road along which to travel.
Resting in a nearby park was an old woman, who, when asked if she could recommend any particular direction for the little girl to travel, exclaimed, “Oh, there is a lovely forest west of here. I love to wander through the trees and enjoy the peace and quiet.” So the little girl went west and after a while, found the very forest in which she lived. She skipped through the trees to her hut, glad to be home.
How might we allegorize this tale? We could, for example, make the story symbolic of gaining experience (naming the little girl “Innocence,” perhaps). Or we could substitute animals for the human characters (the little girl could, for example, be represented by a baby chick, or a fawn, and the old woman by an owl). Does allegorizing the story add a layer of meaning? Does your version seem to have a moral? Write your allegorical version of the story and your responses to these questions in your journal.
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30. Practice: Denotation & Connotation
She _____ his favorite T-shirt.
After reading her he waited ten days, then _____ a letter in response.
They wandered through the park one _____ day.
Look at the following sentences. The words in the menu for each sentence denote the same meaning, however they have different connotations. Choose one of the words in the menu and then, in your notebook, write about how the word you chose changes the connotative meaning of the sentence. Your notebook will be collated so that you can print or your work when you are finished.
tore, shredded, cut
dashed off, composed, wrote
dark, gloomy, shady
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31. Practice: Diction She took an apple from under the tree. back
Now let’s alter the vocabulary:
She picked up a fruit from the ground, where it lay.
She pilfered an apple that had fallen from its tree.
The lovely woman stooped and grabbed the fallen apple.
In all three versions we have the basic elements—a woman, an apple, a tree—but they are given different emphasis.
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32. Practice: Syntax She took an apple from under the tree. back
First, let’s alter the order, or syntax:
From under the tree she took an apple.
She, from under the tree, took an apple.
From under the tree, an apple she took.
They all make sense; we haven’t altered the basic meaning.
But all three of these altered versions change something: The first brings the rhyme (she/tree) closer together. The second plays on our notion of suspense. The third sounds like it belongs in a ballad or some other form where the “took” at the end of the sentence is there either for emphasis, or to set up a rhyme (“ that crook!”).
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33. Practice: Imagery
A couple, kissing for the first time (described by an outsider)
A city seen from an airplane
A feather floating on a pond
What kind of poetic imagery might evolve around the following scenarios? Control your image with descriptive and economic language. Remember: Images can be controlled both by what you include and what you consciously do not include. Readers have imaginations, but you have to give those imaginations something concrete to go on. Write your responses in your notebook—this will be collated so that you can print or your work when you are finished.
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