1. The Science of Psychology
Chapter 1

2. LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
What is Psychology?
Psychology - scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Behavior - outward or overt actions and reactions.
Mental processes - internal, covert activity of our minds.
Psychology is a science
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3. Psychology’s Four Goals
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
Psychology’s Four Goals
Description
What is happening?
Explanation (theory)
Why is it happening?
Prediction
Will it happen again?
Control
How can it be changed?
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4. In the Beginning Relatively new field approximately 125 years old
Influenced by:
Philosophers- interested in understanding the human mind and its connection to physical body
Medical doctors and physiologists- interested in the physical connection between body and brain

5. The Philosophers
Aristotle- Believed the soul and body were aspects of same structure
Plato- Believed soul could exist separately of body
Rene Descartes- Agreed with Plato and believed pineal gland was the seat of the soul

6. LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Structuralism - focused on structure or basic elements of the mind.
Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory
Germany in 1879
Developed the technique of objective introspection
Edward Titchener
Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America.
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7. LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Functionalism - how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.
Proposed by William James.
Interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life rather than analysis of it
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8. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt – “An organized Whole” psychology.
LO Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt – “An organized Whole” psychology.
Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception.
Believed that psychological events (i.e., perceiving and sensing) could not be broken down into any smaller elements and still be understood
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9. Gestalt Psychology

10. LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Freud- Neurologist (specialized in disorders of the nervous system)
Proposed there was an unconscious mind for which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires
The repressed urges, in trying to surface, created the nervous disorders in patients
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11. LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Behaviorism - the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.
Proposed by John B. Watson.
Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned).
Watson believed that phobias were learned.
Case of “Little Albert” – taught to fear a white rat.
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12. Modern Perspectives Psychodynamic perspective –
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Modern Perspectives
Psychodynamic perspective –
Unconscious mind influences behaviors
Development of sense of self and discovery of motivations
Behavioral perspective –
All behavior is learned
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement
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13. Modern Perspectives Humanistic perspective
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Modern Perspectives
Humanistic perspective
Free will- freedom to chose destiny
Early founders:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential or actual self.
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14. Modern Perspectives Cognitive perspective –
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Modern Perspectives
Cognitive perspective –
Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning.
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15. Modern Perspectives Sociocultural perspective –
Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture.

16. Modern Perspectives Biopsychological perspective –
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Modern Perspectives
Biopsychological perspective –
Behavior attributed to genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system.
Evolutionary perspective –
focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics
Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value. .
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17. Psychology and the Scientific Method
LO Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Psychology and the Scientific Method
Scientific method - system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced.
Steps in the Scientific Method:
Perceive the question
Form a hypothesis
Test hypothesis
Draw conclusions
Report your results so that others can try to replicate it
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18. Descriptive Methods Naturalistic observation Advantage:
LO Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation
Advantage:
Realistic picture of behavior
Disadvantages:
Observer effect – tendency of observer to influence behavior
Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see
Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold true.

19. LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Descriptive Methods
Laboratory observation – observing behavior in a laboratory setting.
Advantages:
Control, allows use of
specialized equipment.
Disadvantage:
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior.
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20. LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
Descriptive Methods
Case study - study of one individual in great detail.
Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.
Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.
Famous case study: Phineas Gage.
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21. Descriptive Methods Surveys – method involving a series of questions
LO Case studies and surveys
Descriptive Methods
Surveys – method involving a series of questions
Representative sample - randomly selected from a larger population of subjects.
Population - the entire group
Advantages:
Data from large numbers of people.
Study covert behaviors.
Disadvantages:
Have to ensure representative sample
People are not always accurate (courtesy bias).
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22. Descriptive Methods
When you were a kid, what did you dress up as for Halloween?
How many languages can you speak?
Afraid of heights?
Sing in the car?
Dance in the car?
Occupations you wanted to be when you were a kid?
Ever have a Deja-vu feeling?
First concert?
Can you curl your tongue?
Own any record albums?
Own a record player?
What was the last concert you saw?
Have you ever stolen a street sign before?
Would you rather be attacked by a big bear or a swarm of bees?
What is your biggest pet peeve?
Do you chew your pens and pencils?
What is your Song of the week?
Is it okay for guys to wear pink?
Do you still watch cartoons?
Whats your least favorite movie?
What movies could you watch over and over and still love?
Ever gotten a speeding ticket?
Ran out of gas?

23. Random Sampling from Population
INFERENCE
POPULATION
SAMPLE
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24. Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Finding Relationships
Correlation - a measure of the relationship between two variables
Variable- anything that can change or vary.
Correlation coefficient (r) represents two things:
direction of the relationship.
strength of the relationship.
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25. Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Finding Relationships
Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction.
As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction.
As one increases, the other decreases.
CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION
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26. LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
The Experiment
Experiment- manipulation of a variable to see the effects of another variable
Shows cause-and-effect relationships.
Operational definition – objective definition of a variable (enables it to be directly measured).
Independent variable (IV) – manipulated variable
Dependent variable (DV) – effected variable
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27. LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
Experimental group – Group subjected to independent variable.
Control group – group not subjected to independent variable (controls for confounding variables).
Random assignment - process of assigning to group randomly, equal chance of being in either group.
Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables.
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28. Random Assignment Experimental Group Test for Differences SAMPLE
LO Experimental approach and terms
Random Assignment
Experimental Group
Test for Differences
SAMPLE
Control Group
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29. LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
Placebo effect – participants’ expectations influence how they behave.
Single-blind study- subjects do not know what group they are in.
Experimenter effect- experimenter influences the results of the study.
Double-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects know the subjects’ group
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30. Example of a Real Experiment
LO Conducting a real experiment
Example of a Real Experiment
Hypothesis
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Experimental group
Control group
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