1. Adolescence: Biosocial Development
Chapter Fourteen
Adolescence:
Biosocial Development

2. Puberty Begins Period of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation
typically completed three to four years after first visible signs
Person attains adult size, shape, and sexual potential

3. Hormones Puberty begins with hormone production in brain
hormones from hypothalamus trigger production in pituitary glands
in turn this triggers hormone production in adrenal glands and sex glands (gonads)
To regulate body functions and changes, many hormones follow this route, the HPA(hypothalamus/pituitary/adrenal) axis

4. Hormones, cont.
At puberty, the pituitary gland activates the gonads, or sex glands (ovaries in females, testes in males)
One hormone in particular, GnRH, causes increased production of estrogen in females and testosterone in males

5. Direct Effects on Emotions
Rapidly increasing hormone levels precede rapid arousal of emotions
Hormonal levels correlate with quick shifts in emotional extremes
For boys this increase precipitates thoughts about sex and masturbation
For girls hormonal changes during menstrual cycle produce mood changes

6. Indirect Effects on Emotions
Hormone levels produce visible signs of sexual maturation, which in turn create expectations of new maturity
social responses to biological signs trigger adolescent moods and reactions
One’s culture affects thoughts of sex
first sexual intercourse occurs at different ages in different cultures

7. The Timing of Puberty
Normally, body changes begin to appear between ages 8 and 14
It’s hard to prepare without knowing what changes will be and when they’ll appear
individual may grow a little taller and put on some weight

8. Sex, Genes, and Weight
Girls on average are about two years ahead of boys
Menarche and spermarche
Timing can be affected by genetics, ethnicity, and body fat
individuals with stockier builds experience puberty earlier
chronic malnutrition limits fat, thus delaying puberty by several years

9. Stress in Families
Family conflict may cause earlier onset of puberty or irregular periods
stress levels affect hormone production
stress probably affects hormones causing puberty
Stress hypothesis gained support when researchers identified two factors influencing early puberty
conflicted relationships with family
unrelated man living in the home

10. Too Early or Too Late
Early-maturing girl may be teased and is embarrassed
Age of menarche is a strong predictor of age at first intercourse
Late-maturing boys may be shunned
Early-maturing boys are socially popular and often sports heroes

11. Too Early or Too Late, cont.
Low self-esteem of off-time maturation lingers
Early-maturing girls become mothers sooner
Late-maturing boys marry later and are less likely to be leaders

12. The Growth Spurt
Defined as a sudden, uneven, and rather unpredictable jump in the size of almost every part of the body

13. Wider, Taller, Then Stronger
Increase occurs in bone length and density
feet and fingers lengthen, then arms and legs, then torso
Weight gain becomes rapid
Height increase follows
Timing: for girls, 10–14; for boys, 12–16

14. Other Body Changes Organ growth torso grows as internal organs grow
lungs triple in weight and size (breathing rate decreases)
heart doubles in size (heart rate decreases), total volume of blood increases
physical endurance in exercise increases
lymphoid system decreases in size
hormones may cause changes in oil, sweat, and odor glands of the skin
eyes change—may cause nearsightedness

15. Primary Sex Characteristics
Primary sex characteristics—parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction: vagina, uterus, testes, penis
Primary sex organs grow
girls: uterus grows, vaginal lining thickens
menarche—first menstrual period
boys: testes, penis, scrotal sac enlarge
spermarche—first ejaculation of seminal fluid

16. Secondary Sex Characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics—body characteristics not directly involved in reproduction but indicating sexual maturity
breasts
females accumulate fat
in both sexes, diameter of areola around nipples increases
hair
voice lowers, especially in males
body hair becomes coarser and darker
new hair growth in armpits and in genital area

17. Hazards to Health Adolescence is generally healthy time
Minor childhood illnesses less common; major adult diseases rare
Health of adolescents is more likely to be harmed by their own actions

18. Poor Nutrition
Need for good, healthy calories is greater due to growth spurt
many adolescents become fat and flabby—due not to excess food, but lack of exercise
Adolescents generally eat enough but not the right foods
snack with friends
too much fat, sugar, empty calories; too little calcium

19. Poor Nutrition, cont.
only one in five U.S. high school seniors consumes RDI of five servings of fruits and vegetables
inadequate milk consumption is troubling, as calcium is major contributor to bone growth
one-half adult bone mass acquired during adolescence

20. fewer than half of all teenagers consume RDI of iron
Poor Nutrition, cont.
fewer than half of all teenagers consume RDI of iron
females do not get enough iron, while menstrual cycle depletes iron; therefore, may become anemic

21. Nutritional deficits sometimes arise from distorted body image
Poor Nutrition, cont.
Nutritional deficits sometimes arise from distorted body image
Body Image—person’s concept of how his or her body appears
developing a healthy body image is an integral part of becoming an adult
negative-self appraisal has a major impact on self-esteem

22. Sex Too Soon
With puberty occurring earlier than it used to in the United States, and marriage later, long period between first sexual urges and marriage
More than 25 percent of teens are sexually active by age 14; about one-half active by high school graduation

23. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Sexually active teenagers have higher rates of most common STDs—gonorrhea, genital herpes, syphilis, and chlamydia—than any other age group
Risk of exposure to HIV virus increases if a person is
already infected with other STDs
has more than one partner in a year
does not use condoms during intercourse

24. Teenage Pregnancies
Younger adolescents within two years of beginning menarche are at increased risk for many complications because their bodies have not matured
risks include spontaneous abortion, eclampsia, stillbirth, C-section, low birth weight
women who have given birth before age 16 tend to be shorter and sicker as adults and live less long

25. Teenage Pregnancies, cont.
Older adolescents are at less physical risk but have their own set of problems
after birth of baby, educational and vocational achievement slowed down
babies have a higher risk of prenatal and birth complications than other babies
problems are linked to culture and cohort

26. Sexual Abuse
Defined as the use of unconsenting person for one’s own sexual pleasure
Child sexual abuse—activity that arouses the adult and excites, shames, or confuses a person under age 16
abusers of adolescent girls—usually male relative or friend
abusers of adolescent boys—usually male not in family

27. Drug Use and Abuse
Drug abuse—ingestion of drug so that it impairs user’s well-being
Drug addiction—dependence on a drug or behavior that makes user feel physically or psychologically at ease
Drug use—ingestion of a drug regardless of amount or effect
Nations differ considerably in use
in-laws and culture influence usage
religion influences usage

28. The Gateway Drugs
Link between their occasional use and later drug abuse and addiction repeatedly found
characteristics: violence, early sexual activity, and school failure
drug use both cause and symptom of adolescent problem

29. Tobacco Alcohol The Gateway Drugs, cont. decreases food consumption
interferes with absorption of nutrients
reduces fertility
most physically addictive drug of all
Alcohol
more harmful in adolescence
correlates with abnormal brain development

30. Marijuana The Gateway Drugs, cont.
seriously slows down thinking processes, especially memory and abstract reasoning
may cause lack of motivation and indifference toward future

31. Patterns of Adolescent Drug Use
Almost every teenager tries one of the gateway drugs
by high school graduation, most have tried all three
experimentation happening earlier than previously
Experimentation and regular use
daily use and abuse increases throughout late adolescence

32. Cultural Differences in Drug Use
National culture makes a difference
In Europe, adolescents show increased drug use
adolescent girls in United States as likely to smoke as adolescent boys; in Asia and African few women smoke
drug use changes in frequency, composition, mode of delivery, and in form

33. Adolescence: Cognitive Development
Chapter Fifteen
Adolescence:
Cognitive Development

34. Intellectual Advances
Basic cognitive skills continue to emerge
Logic emerges
Intuitive thinking becomes quicker and more compelling

35. More and Better Cognition
Every basic skill of information process continues to develop
Brain maturation continues
myelination is ongoing, so reaction time shorter
prefrontal cortex becomes more densely packed and more efficient
helps in planning, analyzing, and being able to pursue goals
Language mastery improves

36. New Logical Abilities
Piaget’s formal operational thought, characterized by ability to think logically about abstract ideas
qualitatively different from children’s thoughts

37. Hypothetical-Deductive Thought
Important characteristics
hypothetical thought
thinking about possibilities
deductive and inductive reasoning
deductive reasoning—reasoning from general principle via logical steps to specific conclusion
inductive reasoning—reasoning specific experiences or facts to a general conclusion

38. More Intuitive, Emotional Thought
Hypothetical thought and deductive reasoning not always demonstrated in adolescence, nor acquired by everyone
Two modes of information processing advance during adolescence
analytic thought (adolescents don’t always like to use this type of thinking)
intuitive thought (ideas are discovered and applied)

39. More Intuitive, Emotional Thought, cont.
Two pathways in the brain may lead to “two-track” thinking

40. Adolescent Egocentrism
Characteristic of adolescent thinking that sometimes leads young people to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others and to believe that their thoughts feelings and experiences are unique

41. Adolescent Egocentrism, cont.
Invincibility fable
adolescents feel they are immune to the laws of mortality and probability (and nature)
they therefore take all kinds of risks
Personal fable
adolescents imagine their own lives as mythical or heroic
they see themselves destined for fame or fortune

42. Adolescent Egocentrism, cont.
Imaginary audience
adolescents fantasize about how others will react (opinions of onlookers)
they assume everyone else judges appearance(s)
they’re not at ease with social world

43. Adolescent Egocentrism, cont.
The various forms of adolescent egocentrism are the most obvious forms of intuitive, emotional thought
Adolescent egocentrism is not necessarily destructive
“may signal growth toward cognitive maturity” and personal adaptation

44. Intuitive Conclusions
Intuitive thinking is apparent when adolescents are not judging themselves
It is quick and emotional and can be wrong
Cognitive economy
as knowledge base increases, thinking is quicker
both analysis and intuition become more readily and powerfully available

45. Adolescent Decision Making
Adolescence is a time for personal decisions and independent choices with far-reaching consequences
Adolescents think about possibilities, not practicalities; thus, few decide important matters rationally
egocentrism and intuitive thinking make it hard to analyze and plan ahead

46. Weighing Risks and Benefits
Reasons adults try to protect teenagers from poor judgment
consequences of risk taking are more serious the younger the person is
adolescent choices are long-lasting
adolescents overate the joys of the moment and ignore future costs

47. Weighing Risks and Benefits, cont.
Every decision requires weighing risk against opportunity
Consequences are discounted, probability miscalculated, and their future put at risk
Sex differences
boys more likely to take risks
girls admire risk-taking boys

48. Making Decisions School, Jobs, and Sex
Few adolescents can or should decide their future career
Courses studied and leisure choices do make a difference

49. School: The Volatile Mismatch
Graduation from high school confers many benefits
graduates stay healthier, live longer, are richer, and more likely to marry, stay out of jail, and buy homes
Worldwide, more adolescents are attending high school

50. School: The Volatile Mismatch (cont.)
Volatile mismatch (reason for dropping out)
current needs often conflict with traditional structures of schools
person-environment fit—degree to which environment is conducive to growth of particular individual

51. School: The Volatile Mismatch, cont.
Secondary schools focused on the elite; thus, they do not reflect needs of most adolescents
School schedules undercut education
In large schools, only a few juniors and seniors can be involved in extracurricular activities
Internationally, education systems vary in expectations, curriculum, pedagogical methods, and legal requirements

52. Working Outside of School
U.S. teenagers work more and learn less than teenagers elsewhere
Teenagers usually oriented not toward future skills but to earn spending money
The United States has fewer school-to-work arrangements than other countries
Some kids must work to help their families

53. Working Outside of School, cont.
Meaningful jobs for adolescents are rare
Having a job more than 20 hours/week means less time for study and lower grades
Stable work history in adolescence leads to more stable work history in adulthood

54. What Teenagers Decide About Sex
International differences in teen birth rates are dramatic
rate is higher in United States because more teens sexually active
Cultural differences in onset of sexual intercourse before age 18 years are vast

55. What Teenagers Decide About Sex, cont.
Teen birth rate worldwide is decreasing
Use of contraception, especially by teenage boys, has at least doubled in most nations since 1990 and tripled in the United States since that time.
Being sexually active includes other sexual behaviors than penile-vaginal penetration

56. Sex Education in School
New wave of sex education
more practical
focus on social interaction: communication and specific knowledge
information from friends, older siblings, and parents
Teaching teens about sex does not necessarily lead them to act upon what they’ve learned

57. Risk Taking, Decision Making, and Cultures
Culture and national trends are very influential
risk taking varies by ethnic group
Final decisions about sex, drugs, school, and other matters tend to be made in consultation with families and peers and guided by the community

58. Risk Taking, Decision Making, and Cultures, cont.
A review of family planning around the world shows that teens make responsible decisions about sex if facts and confidentially are available

59. Adolescence: Psychosocial Development
Chapter Sixteen
Adolescence:
Psychosocial Development

60. The Self and Identity Who am I?
Identity—consistent definition of one’s self as a unique individual in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs. and aspirations

61. Multiple Selves
Possible selves—various ideas of who one might be or become, each of which is typically acted out and considered as a possible identity
False self—set of behaviors that is adopted by a person to combat rejection, please others, or try out as a possible self

62. Multiple Selves, cont. Three Types of False Selves
acceptable false self. Adopted to be accepted; arises from feelings of worthlessness, depression; low self-understanding
pleasing false self. Arises from wish to impress or please others; medium self-understanding
experimental false self. Adolescent tries out a self to see how it feels; high self-understanding

63. Identity Status Erikson’s identity versus role confusion
Identity achievement—attainment of identity: self-understanding in accord with past experiences and future plans
willing to reconsider values and goals of parents and culture, accepting some, rejecting others

64. Identity Foreclosure Identity Diffusion Identity Moratorium
Identity Status, cont.
Identity Foreclosure
adopts values and goals of parents and culture without questioning
closes out process before it begins
Identity Diffusion
has few commitments to goals or values, and apathetic about taking on any role
Identity Moratorium
experiments with alternative identities in order to try them out; not ready to make commitment to particular future goal

65. Status Versus Process
Developmentalists asked a series of questions to measure identity status
can a person achieve identity in one domain but still be searching in another domain?
answer: yes
is identity formed from within or from without?
answer: both

66. Gender and Ethnic Identity
Gender identity—identification of self as either male or female with acceptance of all roles and behaviors that society assigns to that sex
adolescents make a multitude of decisions about sexual behavior and select from many gender roles

67. Gender and Ethnic Identity, cont.
Gender identity is often connected to ethnic identity
Ethnic Identity
often questioning of ethnic identity and dominant American identity
As teens grow older, the need to be proud of general heritage grows greater

68. Sadness and Anger
Adolescents can feel despondent and depressed, overwhelmed by the world and their own inadequacies, as well as on top of the world, destined for great accomplishment

69. Emotional problems are categorized in two ways
Sadness and Anger, cont.
Emotional problems are categorized in two ways
internalizing problems: problems are manifested inward to inflict harm on self
externalizing problems: problems are “acted out” by injuring others, destroying property, or defying authority

70. The Usual Dip General trend in mood is more downward than upward
In U.S., both boys and girls feel less and less confident in math, language arts, and sports
self-esteem drops at around age 12
adolescents without support from family, friends, or school more vulnerable to self-esteem dip
loss of self-esteem may push toward depression

71. Depression
Rate of clinical depression more than doubles in puberty (15%)
depression affects 1 to 5 teenage girls, and 1 to 10 teenage boys
hormonal changes may explain this, coupled with psychic stress of school, friends, sexual drives, and identity crises

72. Adolescent Suicide Suicidal Ideation
thinking about suicide common among adolescents

73. Adolescent Suicide, cont.
Five reasons for erroneous belief that suicide is an adolescent problem
rate is triple the rate of 40 years ago
adolescents lumped together with young adults as one statistical category
adolescent suicide is shocking and grabs attention
social prejudice considers teenagers as problems
suicide attempts are more common in adolescence

74. Parasuicide
Parasuicide—deliberate act of self-destruction that does not end in death
Parasuicide and suicide depend on five factors
availability of lethal means, especially guns
lack of parental supervision
alcohol and other drugs
gender
cultural attitudes

75. Gender, Ethnic and National Differences in Suicide
Worldwide, parasuicide is higher for females; completed suicide is higher for males
except in China, where females complete suicide more than males
Cluster suicides occur when several suicides are committed within the same group in a short time

76. Adolescent Rebellion
Many psychologists believe that rebellion for adolescent boys may be normal

77. Breaking the Law
Breaking the law is the most dramatic example of rebellion
Worldwide, arrests rise rapidly at about age 12 and peak at about age 16
44% of all U.S. arrests for serious crimes involve persons aged 10 to 20

78. Incidence—how often a behavior occurs
Breaking the Law, cont.
Incidence—how often a behavior occurs
Prevalence—how widespread a behavior is
Adolescent males are 3 times more likely to be arrested than females
African-Americans are 3 times more likely to be arrested than are European-Americans, who are 3 times more likely as Asian-Americans to be arrested

79. Limiting the Damage
Adolescent-limited offender—person who becomes law abiding as an adult
Life-course persistent offender— juvenile delinquent who continues patterns of lawbreaking throughout life; career criminal

80. Family and Friends
Family and peer support helps adolescents through good and bad times
Support provides
sustenance
provisions
directions
ballast for stability
safe harbor or anchor

81. Parents
Generation gap—distance between generations in values, behaviors, and knowledge—and understanding
adolescents often loosen ties to family
adolescents need to become psychologically separate
Generational stake—each generation needs to see family from its own perspective

82. Parent-Adolescent Conflict
Typically, emerges in early adolescence, especially with daughters
Bickering—petty, peevish arguing, ongoing and repeated
Adolescents believe they should have privileges of adult status

83. Parent-Adolescent Conflict, cont.
Timing of problems is cultural
in general, for teens, bickering peaks in early to middle adolescence
For Chinese-, Korean-, and Mexican-American teens, parental conflict surfaces in late adolescence

84. Other Family Characteristics
Communication
Support
Connectiveness
Control
parental monitoring

85. Peers They’re more crucial in early teens self-help group
help “bridge the gap between childhood and adulthood”
help to define who they are not (identity formation)
Can encourage socially desirable behaviors.

86. Peer Pressure Unmasked
Pressure to conform is strong—up to age 14
Peers help to bridge gap between childhood and adulthood
Peer pressure can be especially negative in times of uncertainty, but is not usually a corrupting influence on good adolescents
Most peer-induced misbehavior is short-lived

87. Peer Group for Immigrants
Bicultural Conflict
caught between strict family traditions and generational push for autonomy
May give in to parental control (girls)
May join a delinquent group (boys)
Establishing ethnic identity is not easy

88. Romantic Attraction Sequence of Heterosexual Attraction
friendships of one sex or the other
loose association of girls’ group and boys’ group
smaller mixed-sex group formed from larger group
true intimacy; peeling off from group into couples, with private intimacies

89. Homosexual Youth
Complications of this life style usually slow down romantic attachments
many reluctant to admit homosexuality
may mask feelings
depression and suicide higher for these youth

90. Conclusion
No other period is full of such multifactoral and compelling biological changes
Fascinating and confusing social and intellectual transitions
Most adolescents and their families survive fairly well

91. Most have some difficulties and some may have several
Conclusion, cont.
Most have some difficulties and some may have several
many problems stem from earlier development
even considering that, adolescents are open to new patterns, goals, and lifestyles
plasticity
young people can find a path that leads to adulthood and its challenges