1. 2 Support and Movement Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology Unit
Frederic H. Martini
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Professor Albia Dugger, Miami–Dade College, Miami, FL
Professor Robert R. Speed, Ph.D., Wallace Community College, Dothan, AL
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2. Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue

3. Muscle Tissue A primary tissue type, divided into: skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
smooth muscle

4. What are the functions of skeletal muscle tissue?

5. Skeletal Muscles
Are attached to the skeletal system
Allow us to move

6. The Muscular System
Includes only skeletal muscles

7. Skeletal Muscle Structures
Muscle tissue (muscle cells or fibers)
Connective tissues
Nerves
Blood vessels

8. Functions of Skeletal Muscles
Produce skeletal movement
Maintain body position
Support soft tissues
Guard body openings
Maintain body temperature

9. How is muscle tissue organized at the tissue level?

10. Organization of Connective Tissues
Figure 10–1

11. Organization of Connective Tissues
Muscles have 3 layers of connective tissues:
epimysium
perimysium
endomysium

12. Epimysium Exterior collagen layer Connected to deep fascia
Separates muscle from surrounding tissues

13. Perimysium Surrounds muscle fiber bundles (fascicles)
Contains blood vessel and nerve supply to fascicles

14. Endomysium Surrounds individual muscle cells (muscle fibers)
Contains capillaries and nerve fibers contacting muscle cells
Contains satellite cells (stem cells) that repair damage

15. Muscle Attachments
Endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium come together:
at ends of muscles
to form connective tissue attachment to bone matrix
i.e., tendon (bundle) or aponeurosis (sheet)

16. Nerves
Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, controlled by nerves of the central nervous system

17. Blood Vessels Muscles have extensive vascular systems that:
supply large amounts of oxygen
supply nutrients
carry away wastes

18. What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle fibers?

19. Formation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Skeletal muscle cells are called fibers
Figure 10–2

20. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Are very long
Develop through fusion of mesodermal cells (myoblasts)
Become very large
Contain hundreds of nuclei

21. Organization of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Figure 10–3

22. The Sarcolemma The cell membrane of a muscle cell
Surrounds the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle fiber)
A change in transmembrane potential begins contractions

23. Transverse Tubules (T tubules)
Transmit action potential through cell
Allow entire muscle fiber to contract simulataneously
Have same properties as sarcolemma

24. Myofibrils Lengthwise subdivisions within muscle fiber
Made up of bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments)
Myofilaments are responsible for muscle contraction

25. Types of Myofilaments Thin filaments: Thick filaments:
made of the protein actin
Thick filaments:
made of the protein myosin

26. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
A membranous structure surrounding each myofibril
Helps transmit action potential to myofibril
Similar in structure to smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Forms chambers (terminal cisternae) attached to T tubules

27. A Triad
Is formed by 1 T tubule and 2 terminal cisternae

28. Cisternae Concentrate Ca2+ (via ion pumps)
Release Ca2+ into sarcomeres to begin muscle contraction

29. What are the structural components of a sarcomere?

30. Sarcomeres
Figure 10–4

31. Sarcomeres The contractile units of muscle
Structural units of myofibrils
Form visible patterns within myofibrils

32. Muscle Striations A striped or striated pattern within myofibrils:
alternating dark, thick filaments (A bands) and light, thin filaments (I bands)

33. M Lines and Z Lines M line: Z lines: the center of the A band
at midline of sarcomere
Z lines:
the centers of the I bands
at 2 ends of sarcomere

34. Zone of Overlap The densest, darkest area on a light micrograph
Where thick and thin filaments overlap

35. The H Zone The area around the M line
Has thick filaments but no thin filaments

36. Titin Are strands of protein
Reach from tips of thick filaments to the Z line
Stabilize the filaments

37. Sarcomere Structure
Figure 10–5

38. Sarcomere Function
Transverse tubules encircle the sarcomere near zones of overlap
Ca2+ released by SR causes thin and thick filaments to interact

39. Level 1: Skeletal Muscle
Figure 10–6 (1 of 5)

40. Level 2: Muscle Fascicle
Figure 10–6 (2 of 5)

41. Level 3: Muscle Fiber
Figure 10–6 (3 of 5)

42. Level 4: Myofibril
Figure 10–6 (4 of 5)

43. Level 5: Sarcomere
Figure 10–6 (5 of 5)

44. Muscle Contraction
Is caused by interactions of thick and thin filaments
Structures of protein molecules detemine interactions

45. A Thin Filament
Figure 10–7a

46. 4 Thin Filament Proteins
F actin:
is 2 twisted rows of globular G actin
the active sites on G actin strands bind to myosin

47. 4 Thin Filament Proteins
Nebulin:
holds F actin strands together

48. 4 Thin Filament Proteins
Tropomyosin:
is a double strand
prevents actin–myosin interaction

49. 4 Thin Filament Proteins
Troponin:
a globular protein
binds tropomyosin to G actin
controlled by Ca2+

50. Troponin and Tropomyosin
Figure 10–7b

51. Initiating Contraction
Ca2+ binds to receptor on troponin molecule
Troponin–tropomyosin complex changes
Exposes active site of F actin

52. A Thick Filament
Figure 10–7c

53. Thick Filaments Contain twisted myosin subunits
Contain titin strands that recoil after stretching

54. The Mysosin Molecule
Figure 10–7d

55. The Mysosin Molecule Tail: Head: binds to other myosin molecules
made of 2 globular protein subunits
reaches the nearest thin filament

56. Mysosin Action During contraction, myosin heads:
interact with actin filaments, forming cross-bridges
pivot, producing motion

57. Sliding Filaments
Figure 10–8

58. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament theory:
thin filaments of sarcomere slide toward M line
between thick filaments
the width of A zone stays the same
Z lines move closer together
InterActive Physiology: Sliding Filament Theory
PLAY

59. What are the components of the neuromuscular junction, and the events involved in the neural control of skeletal muscles?

60. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
Figure 10–9 (Navigator)

61. The Process of Contraction
Neural stimulation of sarcolemma:
causes excitation–contraction coupling
Cisternae of SR release Ca2+:
which triggers interaction of thick and thin filaments
consuming ATP and producing tension

62. Skeletal Muscle Innervation
Figure 10–10a, b (Navigator)

63. Skeletal Muscle Innervation
Figure 10–10c

64. The Neuromuscular Junction
Is the location of neural stimulation
Action potential (electrical signal):
travels along nerve axon
ends at synaptic terminal

65. Synaptic Terminal Releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or ACh)
Into the synaptic cleft (gap between synaptic terminal and motor end plate)

66. The Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine or ACh:
travels across the synaptic cleft
binds to membrane receptors on sarcolemma (motor end plate)
causes sodium–ion rush into sarcoplasm
is quickly broken down by enzyme (acetylcholinesterase or AChE)

67. Action Potential Generated by increase in sodium ions in sarcolemma
Travels along the T tubules
Leads to excitation–contraction coupling

68. Excitation–Contraction Coupling
Action potential reaches a triad:
releasing Ca2+
triggering contraction
Requires myosin heads to be in “cocked” position:
loaded by ATP energy

69. What are the key steps involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber?

70. Exposing the Active Site
Figure 10–11

71. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (1 of 4)

72. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (2 of 4)

73. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (3 of 4)

74. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (Navigator) (4 of 4)

75. 5 Steps of the Contraction Cycle
Exposure of active sites
Formation of cross-bridges
Pivoting of myosin heads
Detachment of cross-bridges
Reactivation of myosin

76. Fiber Shortening
As sarcomeres shorten, muscle pulls together, producing tension
Figure 10–13

77. Contraction Duration Depends on: duration of neural stimulus
number of free calcium ions in sarcoplasm
availability of ATP

78. Relaxation Ca2+ concentrations fall Ca2+ detaches from troponin
Active sites are recovered by tropomyosin
Sarcomeres remain contracted

79. Rigor Mortis A fixed muscular contraction after death Caused when:
ion pumps cease to function
calcium builds up in the sarcoplasm

80. A Review of Muscle Contraction
Table 10–1 (1 of 2)

81. A Review of Muscle Contraction
Table 10–1 (2 of 2)

82. KEY CONCEPT (Part 1)
Skeletal muscle fibers shorten as thin filaments slide between thick filaments
Free Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm triggers contraction
SR releases Ca2+ when a motor neuron stimulates the muscle fiber

83. KEY CONCEPT (Part 2) Contraction is an active process
Relaxation and return to resting length is passive

84. What is the mechanism responsible for tension production in a muscle fiber, and what factors determine the peak tension developed during a contraction?

85. Tension Production The all–or–none principal:
as a whole, a muscle fiber is either contracted or relaxed

86. Tension of a Single Muscle Fiber
Depends on:
the number of pivoting cross-bridges
the fiber’s resting length at the time of stimulation
the frequency of stimulation

87. Tension and Sarcomere Length
Figure 10–14

88. Length–Tension Relationship
Number of pivoting cross-bridges depends on:
amount of overlap between thick and thin fibers
Optimum overlap produces greatest amount of tension:
too much or too little reduces efficiency

89. Length–Tension Relationship
Normal resting sarcomere length:
is 75% to 130% of optimal length

90. Frequency of Stimulation
A single neural stimulation produces:
a single contraction or twitch
which lasts about 7–100 msec
Sustained muscular contractions:
require many repeated stimuli

91. Tension in a Twitch Length of twitch depends on type of muscle
Figure 10–15a (Navigator)

92. Myogram A graph of twitch tension development
Figure 10–15b (Navigator)

93. 3 Phases of Twitch Latent period before contraction:
the action potential moves through sarcolemma
causing Ca2+ release

94. 3 Phases of Twitch Contraction phase: calcium ions bind
tension builds to peak

95. 3 Phases of Twitch Relaxation phase: Ca2+ levels fall
active sites are covered
tension falls to resting levels

96. Treppe
A stair-step increase in twitch tension
Figure 10–16a

97. Treppe Repeated stimulations immediately after relaxation phase:
stimulus frequency < 50/second
Causes a series of contractions with increasing tension

98. Wave Summation Increasing tension or summation of twitches
Figure 10–16b

99. Wave Summation
Repeated stimulations before the end of relaxation phase:
stimulus frequency > 50/second
Causes increasing tension or summation of twitches

100. Incomplete Tetanus
Twitches reach maximum tension
Figure 10–16c

101. Incomplete Tetanus
If rapid stimulation continues and muscle is not allowed to relax, twitches reach maximum level of tension

102. Complete Tetanus
Figure 10–16d

103. Complete Tetanus
If stimulation frequency is high enough, muscle never begins to relax, and is in continuous contraction

104. What factors affect peak tension production during the contraction of an entire skeletal muscle, and what is the significance of the motor unit in this process?

105. Tension Produced by Whole Skeletal Muscles
Depends on:
internal tension produced by muscle fibers
external tension exerted by muscle fibers on elastic extracellular fibers
total number of muscle fibers stimulated
InterActive Physiology: Contraction of Whole Muscle
PLAY

106. Motor Units in a Skeletal Muscle
Figure 10–17

107. Motor Units in a Skeletal Muscle
Contain hundreds of muscle fibers
That contract at the same time
Controlled by a single motor neuron
InterActive Physiology: Contraction of Motor Units
PLAY

108. Recruitment (Multiple Motor Unit Summation)
In a whole muscle or group of muscles, smooth motion and increasing tension is produced by slowly increasing size or number of motor units stimulated

109. Maximum Tension Achieved when all motor units reach tetanus
Can be sustained only a very short time

110. Sustained Tension Less than maximum tension
Allows motor units to rest in rotation

111. KEY CONCEPT
Voluntary muscle contractions involve sustained, tetanic contractions of skeletal muscle fibers
Force is increased by increasing the number of stimulated motor units (recruitment)

112. Muscle Tone The normal tension and firmness of a muscle at rest
Muscle units actively maintain body position, without motion
Increasing muscle tone increases metabolic energy used, even at rest

113. What are the types of muscle contractions, and how do they differ?

114. 2 Types of Skeletal Muscle Tension
Isotonic contraction
Isometric contraction

115. Isotonic Contraction
Figure 10–18a, b

116. Isotonic Contraction Skeletal muscle changes length:
resulting in motion
If muscle tension > resistance:
muscle shortens (concentric contraction)
If muscle tension < resistance:
muscle lengthens (eccentric contraction)

117. Isometric Contraction
Figure 10–18c, d

118. Isometric Contraction
Skeletal muscle develops tension, but is prevented from changing length
Note: Iso = same, metric = measure

119. Resistance and Speed of Contraction
Figure 10–19

120. Resistance and Speed of Contraction
Are inversely related
The heavier the resistance on a muscle:
the longer it takes for shortening to begin
and the less the muscle will shorten

121. Muscle Relaxation
After contraction, a muscle fiber returns to resting length by:
elastic forces
opposing muscle contractions
gravity

122. Elastic Forces The pull of elastic elements (tendons and ligaments)
Expands the sarcomeres to resting length

123. Opposing Muscle Contractions
Reverse the direction of the original motion
Are the work of opposing skeletal muscle pairs

124. Gravity
Can take the place of opposing muscle contraction to return a muscle to its resting state

125. What are the mechanisms by which muscle fibers obtain energy to power contractions?

126. ATP and Muscle Contraction
Sustained muscle contraction uses a lot of ATP energy
Muscles store enough energy to start contraction
Muscle fibers must manufacture more ATP as needed

127. ATP and CP Reserves Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
the active energy molecule
Creatine phosphate (CP):
the storage molecule for excess ATP energy in resting muscle

128. Recharging ATP Energy recharges ADP to ATP:
using the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
When CP is used up, other mechanisms generate ATP

129. Energy Storage in Muscle Fiber
Table 10–2

130. ATP Generation Cells produce ATP in 2 ways:
aerobic metabolism of fatty acids in the mitochondria
anaerobic glycolysis in the cytoplasm

131. Aerobic Metabolism Is the primary energy source of resting muscles
Breaks down fatty acids
Produces 34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule

132. Anaerobic Glycolysis
Is the primary energy source for peak muscular activity
Produces 2 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose
Breaks down glucose from glycogen stored in skeletal muscles

133. Energy Use and Muscle Activity
At peak exertion:
muscles lack oxygen to support mitochondria
muscles rely on glycolysis for ATP
pyruvic acid builds up, is converted to lactic acid

134. Muscle Metabolism InterActive Physiology: Muscle Metabolism PLAY
Figure 10–20a

135. Muscle Metabolism
Figure 10–20b

136. Muscle Metabolism
Figure 10–20c

137. Muscle Metabolism
Figure 10–20 (Navigator)

138. What factors contribute to muscle fatigue, and what are the stages and mechanisms involved in muscle recovery?

139. Muscle Fatigue
When muscles can no longer perform a required activity, they are fatigued

140. Results of Muscle Fatigue
Depletion of metabolic reserves
Damage to sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum
Low pH (lactic acid)
Muscle exhaustion and pain

141. The Recovery Period
The time required after exertion for muscles to return to normal
Oxygen becomes available
Mitochondrial activity resumes

142. The Cori Cycle The removal and recycling of lactic acid by the liver
Liver converts lactic acid to pyruvic acid
Glucose is released to recharge muscle glycogen reserves

143. Oxygen Debt After exercise:
the body needs more oxygen than usual to normalize metabolic activities
resulting in heavy breathing

144. KEY CONCEPT
Skeletal muscles at rest metabolize fatty acids and store glycogen
During light activity, muscles generate ATP through anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids or amino acids
At peak activity, energy is provided by anaerobic reactions that generate lactic acid as a byproduct

145. Heat Production and Loss
Active muscles produce heat
Up to 70% of muscle energy can be lost as heat, raising body temperature

146. Hormones and Muscle Metabolism
Growth hormone
Testosterone
Thyroid hormones
Epinephrine

147. How do the types of muscle fibers relate to muscle performance?

148. Muscle Performance Power: Endurance: Power and endurance depend on:
the maximum amount of tension produced
Endurance:
the amount of time an activity can be sustained
Power and endurance depend on:
the types of muscle fibers
physical conditioning

149. 3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Fast fibers
Slow fibers
Intermediate fibers

150. Fast Fibers Contract very quickly
Have large diameter, large glycogen reserves, few mitochondria
Have strong contractions, fatigue quickly

151. Slow Fibers Are slow to contract, slow to fatigue
Have small diameter, more mitochondria
Have high oxygen supply
Contain myoglobin (red pigment, binds oxygen)

152. Intermediate Fibers Are mid-sized Have low myoglobin
Have more capillaries than fast fiber, slower to fatigue

153. Fast versus Slow Fibers
Figure 10–21

154. Comparing Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Table 10–3

155. Muscles and Fiber Types
White muscle:
mostly fast fibers
pale (e.g., chicken breast)
Red muscle:
mostly slow fibers
dark (e.g., chicken legs)
Most human muscles:
mixed fibers
pink

156. Muscle Hypertrophy Muscle growth from heavy training:
increases diameter of muscle fibers
increases number of myofibrils
increases mitochondria, glycogen reserves

157. Muscle Atrophy Lack of muscle activity:
reduces muscle size, tone, and power

158. What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic endurance, and their effects on muscular performance?

159. Physical Conditioning
Improves both power and endurance

160. Anaerobic Endurance
Anaerobic activities (e.g., 50-meter dash, weightlifting):
use fast fibers
fatigue quickly with strenuous activity
Improved by:
frequent, brief, intensive workouts
hypertrophy

161. Aerobic Endurance Aerobic activities (prolonged activity):
supported by mitochondria
require oxygen and nutrients
Improved by:
repetitive training (neural responses)
cardiovascular training

162. KEY CONCEPT (1 of 2) What you don’t use, you loose
Muscle tone indicates base activity in motor units of skeletal muscles
Muscles become flaccid when inactive for days or weeks

163. KEY CONCEPT (2 of 2)
Muscle fibers break down proteins, become smaller and weaker
With prolonged inactivity, fibrous tissue may replace muscle fibers

164. What are the structural and functional differences between skeletal muscle fibers and cardiac muscle cells?

165. Structure of Cardiac Tissue
Cardiac muscle is striated, found only in the heart
Figure 10–22

166. 7 Characteristics of Cardiocytes
Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle cells (cardiocytes):
are small
have a single nucleus
have short, wide T tubules

167. 7 Characteristics of Cardiocytes
have no triads
have SR with no terminal cisternae
are aerobic (high in myoglobin, mitochondria)
have intercalated discs

168. Intercalated Discs Are specialized contact points between cardiocytes
Join cell membranes of adjacent cardiocytes (gap junctions, desmosomes)

169. Functions of Intercalated Discs
Maintain structure
Enhance molecular and electrical connections
Conduct action potentials

170. Coordination of Cardiocytes
Because intercalated discs link heart cells mechanically, chemically, and electrically, the heart functions like a single, fused mass of cells

171. 4 Functions of Cardiac Tissue
Automaticity:
contraction without neural stimulation
controlled by pacemaker cells
Variable contraction tension:
controlled by nervous system

172. 4 Functions of Cardiac Tissue
Extended contraction time
Prevention of wave summation and tetanic contractions by cell membranes

173. What role does smooth muscle play in systems throughout the body?

174. Smooth Muscle in Body Systems (Part 1)
Forms around other tissues
In blood vessels:
regulates blood pressure and flow
In reproductive and glandular systems:
produces movements

175. Smooth Muscle in Body Systems (Part 2)
In digestive and urinary systems:
forms sphincters
produces contractions
In integumentary system:
arrector pili muscles cause goose bumps

176. What are the structural and functional differences between skeletal muscle fibers and smooth muscle cells?

177. Structure of Smooth Muscle
Nonstriated tissue
Figure 10–23

178. Comparing Smooth and Striated Muscle
Different internal organization of actin and myosin
Different functional characteristics

179. 8 Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Cells
Long, slender, and spindle shaped
Have a single, central nucleus
Have no T tubules, myofibrils, or sarcomeres
Have no tendons or aponeuroses

180. 8 Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Cells
Have scattered myosin fibers
Myosin fibers have more heads per thick filament
Have thin filaments attached to dense bodies
Dense bodies transmit contractions from cell to cell

181. Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle
Excitation–contraction coupling
Length–tension relationships
Control of contractions
Smooth muscle tone

182. Excitation–Contraction Coupling
Free Ca2+ in cytoplasm triggers contraction
Ca2+ binds with calmodulin:
in the sarcoplasm
activates myosin light chain kinase
Enzyme breaks down ATP, initiates contraction

183. Length–Tension Relationships
Thick and thin filaments are scattered
Resting length not related to tension development
Functions over a wide range of lengths (plasticity)

184. Control of Contractions
Subdivisions:
multiunit smooth muscle cells:
connected to motor neurons
visceral smooth muscle cells:
not connected to motor neurons
rhythmic cycles of activity controlled by pacesetter cells

185. Smooth Muscle Tone Maintains normal levels of activity
Modified by neural, hormonal, or chemical factors

186. Characteristics of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle
Table 10–4

187. SUMMARY (1 of 6) 3 types of muscle tissue:
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
Functions of skeletal muscles

188. SUMMARY (2 of 6) Structure of skeletal muscle cells:
endomysium
perimysium
epimysium
Functional anatomy of skeletal muscle fiber:
actin and myosin

189. SUMMARY (3 of 6) Nervous control of skeletal muscle fibers:
neuromuscular junctions
action potentials
Tension production in skeletal muscle fibers:
twitch, treppe, tetanus

190. SUMMARY (4 of 6) Tension production by skeletal muscles:
motor units and contractions
Skeletal muscle activity and energy:
ATP and CP
aerobic and anaerobic energy

191. SUMMARY (5 of 6) Skeletal muscle fatigue and recovery
3 types of skeletal muscle fibers:
fast, slow, and intermediate
Skeletal muscle performance:
white and red muscles
physical conditioning

192. SUMMARY (6 of 6) Structures and functions of: cardiac muscle tissue
smooth muscle tissue