1. Introduction to Applied Linguistics 4-year College Junior students Fall semester Topics: Ways of Word-Building in Modern English Textbook: Exploring the System of the English Language Part 2, chapter 1(pp. 119 – 131) ISBN 986-7688-42-2 Professor: Ludmila Kudrevatykh

2. Learning Activities Preview the material of a chapter at home Preview the material of a chapter at home Learn linguistic terminology Learn linguistic terminology Listen to the teacher’s explanations Listen to the teacher’s explanations Do practical in class Do practical in class Correct the mistakes under the supervision of the teacher Correct the mistakes under the supervision of the teacher

3. 1. Preview a chapter 2. 2. 3. Discuss definitions and classifications 4. 4. 5. Do practical 6. Make mistakes correction 7. Do controlling tests Individual home work Individual home work Teacher’s explanations and presentations Teacher’s explanations and presentations Individual or pair-work in class Individual or pair-work in class On the board in class On the board in class Regularly, after discussion Regularly, after discussion a. Quizzes b. Practical exercises Course Methods

4. Lesson plan (in weeks) 1. Morphemic structure of a word; 2. Productive ways of word-building in Modern English: word-derivation; 3. Productive ways of word-building : word-derivation ( cont ); 4. Productive ways of word-building: word-composition ; 5. Productive ways of word-building: conversion ; 6. Productive ways of word-building: shortening ; 7. Minor ways of word-formation in Modern English; 8. Review; 9. Midterm.

5. Lesson plan (continued) 1. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: synonyms; 2. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: synonyms (cont); 3. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: antonyms; 4. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: antonyms (cont); 5. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: homonyms ; 6. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: homonyms (cont); 7. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words : hyponyms, paronyms ; 8. Review; 9. Final Test.

6. What is Lexicology? (p.119 – 120) Lexicology is a branch of Linguistics that studies the meaning and the use of words. 2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology : 2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology : Morphology and Semantics Morphology studies forms of words. Morphology studies forms of words. Semantics studies meanings of words. Semantics studies meanings of words.

7. What kind of words does Lexicology study? Lexicology mostly studies lexical words than grammatical words e.g.: We are coming tonight by a 10 o’clock bus Lexical words carry the main meaning of a sentence: Coming, tonight, ten, o’clock, bus Grammatical words make the sentence grammatically complete: we, are, by, a

8. Morphemic structure of a word (p.121) Morphemes are units smaller than a word each having its sound form and a meaning: teach-er (2), help-less-ness (3), sports-man (3). Like a word - a morpheme is a two-sided language unit that has associations with a certain sound-pattern and a meaning. Like a word - a morpheme is a two-sided language unit that has associations with a certain sound-pattern and a meaning. Unlike a word - a morpheme is not an independent unit and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a word. Unlike a word - a morpheme is not an independent unit and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a word. Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units without losing their meanings.

9. Classes of morphemes (p. 121) 2 classes of morphemes: lexical morphemes and lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes grammatical morphemes Lexical morphemes are used to build new words (teacher, worker, helper, builder, reader) Grammatical morphemes are used to change grammatical forms of words and make a sentence grammatically complete (teacher, teachers, teach, teaching; the, on, without,

10. Types of Morphemes: Free morphemes (p. 121) Both types of morphemes may be free and bound. Free morphemes are used independently. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words - they express lexical meaning of a word (play, plays, playing) express lexical meaning of a word (play, plays, playing) build up words by themselves (teach, house, world) build up words by themselves (teach, house, world) Free grammatical morphemes are function words - conjunctions (and, or), prepositions (in, under, with), articles (the, a, an) They make a sentence grammatically correct.

11. Types of Morphemes: Bound Morphemes (p. 121) Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words Bound lexical morphemes are mostly affixes Bound lexical morphemes are mostly affixes (prefixes and suffixes) prefixes are used before the root (unpleasant) prefixes are used before the root (unpleasant) suffixes – after the root morpheme (helpless) suffixes – after the root morpheme (helpless) Bound lexical morphemes change the lexical meaning of a word Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings) -s for the Plural of nouns (chairs, tables, windows), -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs (opened, closed, changed), -ing for the Present Participle (teaching, opening, closing), etc. Bound grammatical morphemes change a grammatical form of a word

12. Types of Morphemes: Classification of Lexical Morphemes (p. 121) Morphemes could be classified semantically and structurally Semantically, lexical morphemes may be of 3 types: Root morphemes Root morphemes Affixal morphemes (affixes: prefixes and suffixes) Affixal morphemes (affixes: prefixes and suffixes) Semi-affixes (semi-prefixes, semi-suffixes) Semi-affixes (semi-prefixes, semi-suffixes) Structurally, lexical morphemes may be of 3 types: Free morphemes Free morphemes Bound morphemes Bound morphemes Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes Semi-bound/ semi-free morphemes can function both as free and bound morphemes: ( man – postman, well – well-known, half – half-done, over - once-over, overall)

13. Types of Morphemes: Classification of Grammatical Morphemes (p. 121) Grammatical morphemes could be classified functionally and structurally The main function of grammatical words is to make a sentence grammatically correct and complete. Conjunctions, prepositions and articles are used for this purpose. Structurally, grammatical morphemes are used to change a grammatical form of a word. Inflections (endings) are used for this purpose.

14. Practical 1 Analyze morphemic structures of the following words: Childhood, speaker, homeward, unpredictable, booklet, misunderstanding, include, well- bred, enlarge, engine, disorganized, deliver, detail, affectionateness, underfed, water, half-done, lady-like, discuss, experience, daily, evaluate, realize, estimation, elderly, infatuate, water-proof, study, self-study, somber, surprise, assessment, demoralization, undersigned, inaccessible, impassable, remember, debus, ex-wife, frustratingly, divide, destroy Examples table – It consists of 1 morpheme: “table”; It consists of 1 morpheme: “table”; It is a simple word; It is a simple word; Semantically: “table” is a root morpheme; Semantically: “table” is a root morpheme; Structurally: “table” is a free morpheme. Structurally: “table” is a free morpheme. disappointment – It consists of 3 morphemes: “dis-“, “appoint” and “-ment”; It consists of 3 morphemes: “dis-“, “appoint” and “-ment”; Semantically: Semantically: “dis-” is a derivational morpheme – prefix, “dis-” is a derivational morpheme – prefix, “appoint” is a root morpheme, “appoint” is a root morpheme, “-ment” is a derivational morpheme – suffix; “-ment” is a derivational morpheme – suffix; Structurally: Structurally: “dis-“ and “-ment” are bound morphemes, “dis-“ and “-ment” are bound morphemes, “appoint” is a free morpheme. “appoint” is a free morpheme.

15. Ways of Word Formation: What is Word-Building? (p. 122) Word-building is a process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns. 2 ways of word formation: productive ways are widely used to form a lot of new words in Modern English productive ways are widely used to form a lot of new words in Modern English ( word-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shortening ); non-productive ways are not frequently used for the production of new words in Modern English non-productive ways are not frequently used for the production of new words in Modern English ( blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, sound imitation)

16. Productive Ways of Word Formation: Word-Derivation (p. 124 – 126) Word-derivation or affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems – either prefixes or suffixes, or both together. 2 different ways of word-derivation: prefixation and prefixation and suffixation suffixation Several degrees of word-derivation: zero degree of derivation (to support, to make) zero degree of derivation (to support, to make) the first degree of derivation (unlock, kindly) the first degree of derivation (unlock, kindly) the second degree of derivation (dishonesty), etc. the second degree of derivation (dishonesty), etc.

17. Word-Derivation: Principles of classification of affixes (p. 125) 2 principles of classification: Diachronic Diachronic Synchronic Synchronic Diachronic analysis deals with the origin of affixes: native and foreign affixes. Synchronically, affixes are classified according to the following: 1. meanings of affixes; 2. functions performed; 3. parts of speech formed; 4. stylistic reference; 5. degree of productivity.

18. Word-Derivation: Prefixation (p.125) formation of new words with the help of prefixes Diachronically, prefixes may be of native and foreign origin. Synchronically, prefixes are classified according to the following: 1. meanings of prefixes; 2. functions performed by prefixes; 3. parts of speech formed by prefixes; 4. stylistic reference of prefixes; 5. degree of productivity of prefixes.

19. Prefixation: Origin of Prefixes (p. 125) Many of the native prefixes (be-, out-, under-, over-, after-) used to be independent words that lost their independence and turned into prefixes Many of the native prefixes (be-, out-, under-, over-, after-) used to be independent words that lost their independence and turned into prefixes (outlet, undergo, overall, afterthought) Some of the prefixes have always functioned as prefixes, e.g., mis-, un-: misdeed, unable. Some of the prefixes have always functioned as prefixes, e.g., mis-, un-: misdeed, unable. Foreign prefixes (pre-, post-, co-, inter-, super-, extra-, anti-, etc.) have been adopted by the English language mostly as constituent parts of borrowed words (post-war, interchange, subdivide, ultramodern, anti-war, coordinate) Foreign prefixes (pre-, post-, co-, inter-, super-, extra-, anti-, etc.) have been adopted by the English language mostly as constituent parts of borrowed words (post-war, interchange, subdivide, ultramodern, anti-war, coordinate)

20. Prefixation: Meanings of Derivatives (1) Prefixes carry different meanings. It is possible to distinguish the following prefixes: 1.negative prefixes: unemployed, incorrect, amoral; 1.negative prefixes: unemployed, incorrect, amoral; 2.reversative prefixes: unfasten, deform, disconnect: 2.reversative prefixes: unfasten, deform, disconnect: 3.prefixes of time and order: pre-war, ex-president, foretell; 3.prefixes of time and order: pre-war, ex-president, foretell; 4.prefixes of repetition: rewrite, remake; 4.prefixes of repetition: rewrite, remake; 5.locative prefixes: subway, intercontinental, transoceanic, overcoat; 5.locative prefixes: subway, intercontinental, transoceanic, overcoat; 6. pejorative prefixes: pseudoscientific, maltreat. 6. pejorative prefixes: pseudoscientific, maltreat.

21. Prefixation: Functional Use (2) Functionally, English prefixes are used to create a new lexical meaning of a derivative word: Functionally, English prefixes are used to create a new lexical meaning of a derivative word: an order – a disorder (noun – noun) pleasant – unpleasant (adjective – adjective) to read – to reread (verb – verb) Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a derivative. Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a derivative. They are: be-, de-, en-: belittle, debus, entrain.

22. Prefixation: Parts of speech formed (3) In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a derivative of a different word-class (except 3 prefixes – be-, de-, en-) Since the Old English period, prefixes have mostly been typical of English verbs.

23. Prefixation: Stylistic Reference (4) According to their stylistic reference, prefixes may be of 2 types: stylistically neutral and stylistically colored. Most of the native prefixes are stylistically neutral: subdivide, reinterpret. Some of unassimilated prefixes are marked by stylistic, mostly by bookish, coloring: transcontinental, super-ordinate

24. Prefixation: Degree of Productivity (5) According to the degree of productivity, prefixes are divided into 2 types: productive and non-productive prefixes. With the help of productive prefixes a lot of new words are formed in Modern English. They are: re-, un-, dis-, etc. (see: handouts) Non-productive prefixes, though sometimes quite frequent in use, do not participate in the formation of new words in Modern English: a-, for-, with-, forth-.

25. Prefixation: Practical 1 Give a full morphological analysis of prefixes in the following words Disappointment, belittle, unbelievable, reread, subtropical, enrich, ex-boss, indistinguishable, immoral, overestimate, antinational, nonproductive, asocial, transcontinental, illegal, extraordinary, outgoing, counterattack, abnormal, unsophisticated, impose, stepdaughter, retroactive, pseudovector, co-producer, underestimating, derail, disrespect – It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative. It consists of 2 morphemes “dis-” and “respect”. It consists of 2 morphemes “dis-” and “respect”. It is the first degree of derivation. It is the first degree of derivation.Semantically, “dis-” is a derivational morpheme (prefix), “dis-” is a derivational morpheme (prefix), “respect” is a root morpheme. “respect” is a root morpheme.Structurally, “dis-” is a bound morpheme, “dis-” is a bound morpheme, “respect is a free morpheme. “respect is a free morpheme.Diachronically: prefix “dis-“ is of Latin origin. prefix “dis-“ is of Latin origin.Synchronically: Prefix “dis-“ has the meaning of a reversative action, Prefix “dis-“ has the meaning of a reversative action, it doesn’t change the part of speech formed, it doesn’t change the part of speech formed, it is stylistically neutral and it is stylistically neutral and it is productive in Modern English it is productive in Modern English

26. Prefixation: Practical 2 Define meanings of prefixes in the following words to unlock, to decentralize, independent, anti- war, instability, uncomfortable, misbehavior, counter-plan, outside, to mishear, a counter- propaganda, to overcook, outlaw, to devalue, non-smoker, antifascist, inexperienced, unwell, extra-regular, ultra-short, to entrap, super-pure, transcontinental, to redo, coexistence, to overdue, an ex-minister, impertinent, bedim, restructure, over-busy, an interclass, extraterritorial, an ex-serviceman, an outbuilding

27. Word-derivation: Suffixation – the formation of new words with the help of suffixes (p. 125 – 126) Diachronical classification: suffixes may be native and foreign. Suffixes of native origin : -ness, -ish, -ing, -hood, etc. Suffixes of native origin : -ness, -ish, -ing, -hood, etc. Originally, many of the suffixes were independent words that gradually turned into derivational suffixes: -dom, -hood, -ship, etc. Some suffixes have always been known as derivational units: -ish, -less, -ness, etc. Some suffixes have always been known as derivational units: -ish, -less, -ness, etc.

28. Suffixation: Origin (p. 125) Foreign suffixes were borrowed with the words of Latin and French origin. Suffixes of Latin origin are: -(a)tion / -ion: constitution, revolution; opinion, union; -(a)tion / -ion: constitution, revolution; opinion, union; -ate / -ute: create, congratulate; distribute, contribute; -ate / -ute: create, congratulate; distribute, contribute; -ct: connect, act, conduct; -ct: connect, act, conduct; -able: eatable, doable, teachable; -able: eatable, doable, teachable; -ate: desperate, accurate; -ate: desperate, accurate; -ant / -ent: important; convenient, evident; -ant / -ent: important; convenient, evident; -or / -ar / -al: junior, senior; maternal; familiar, solar, etc. -or / -ar / -al: junior, senior; maternal; familiar, solar, etc. Suffixes of French origin are: -ment: development, appointment; -ment: development, appointment; -ess: actress, tigress; -ess: actress, tigress; -ance / -ence: arrogance; patience; -ance / -ence: arrogance; patience; -age: courage, marriage, etc. -age: courage, marriage, etc.

29. Suffixation: Functional Use (p. 126) Suffixes are used to derive a word into a different word- class: V  N, V  Adj, Adj  V, N  Adj, cf., to form – formation,, to invent – inventive, active – to activate, a sister – sisterly, etc. Suffixes are used to derive a word into a different word- class: V  N, V  Adj, Adj  V, N  Adj, cf., to form – formation,, to invent – inventive, active – to activate, a sister – sisterly, etc. Only some suffixes do not change the part of speech of a derived word but transfer it into another semantic group: cf., the suffix –ship changes concrete nouns to abstract nouns, as in a champion - championship, a chairman - chairmanship; Only some suffixes do not change the part of speech of a derived word but transfer it into another semantic group: cf., the suffix –ship changes concrete nouns to abstract nouns, as in a champion - championship, a chairman - chairmanship; see also: a piano – a pianist, a dance – dancing, etc.

30. Suffixation: Functional Use (cont) According to the part of speech formed, suffixes may be classified into the following groups: noun-forming suffixes: - dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, - ment, -age, -ess; noun-forming suffixes: - dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, - ment, -age, -ess; adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ous, -ish, -ative; adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ous, -ish, -ative; verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate; verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate; adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ward adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ward (for examples, please, see handouts)

31. Suffixation: Meaning of Derivatives (p. 126) Suffixes express various meanings of certain parts of speech. Noun-forming suffixes may express the following meanings: Noun-forming suffixes may express the following meanings: agent, profession or occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist; agent, profession or occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist; appurtenance: -an (German), -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese); appurtenance: -an (German), -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese); collectivity: -age, -dom, -hood, -ship; collectivity: -age, -dom, -hood, -ship; abstract idea: -age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -tion, -th, -ty. abstract idea: -age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -tion, -th, -ty. Adjective-forming suffixes may express: presence of quality (-ous, -ful, -able); presence of quality (-ous, -ful, -able); absence of quality (-less); absence of quality (-less); Verb-forming suffixes have meanings of: to cause, to become (-en, -ize, -fy) to cause, to become (-en, -ize, -fy) To act in a specific way (-ate) To act in a specific way (-ate)

32. Suffixation: Stylistic Reference (p. 126) Native suffixes and fully assimilated borrowed suffixes are stylistically neutral; Some of borrowed suffixes are stylistically colored. Greek affixes are stylistically colored in Modern English (bookish style): - oid, -tron, -a, -i, cf.: humanoid, synchrotron, protolanguage, etc.

33. Suffixation: Degree of Productivity (p. 126) Productive suffixes are frequently used for the formation of new words in Modern English: -er, -ist, -ing, etc. The degree of productivity of suffixes should not be mixed with the frequency of their usage. Non-productive suffixes that are quite seldom used to build new words in Modern English are frequently met in the vocabulary: -ock (hillock), -th (width) –t (kept). Some of the suffixes gained their productivity after having been non-productive for centuries: -ish (reddish, yellowish), -dom (boredom, serfdom, slavedom)

34. Suffixation: Splinters Splinters are parts of words which appeared as a result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word: Splinters are parts of words which appeared as a result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word: mini- (from: miniature) minicar, miniradio; maxi- (from: maximum) maxi-house, maxi-sculpture; -napper (from: kidnapper) busnapper, dognapper; -omat (from: automat) cashomat, laundromat; -eteria (from: cafeteria) booketeria, groceteria; -quake (from: earthquake) Moonquake, youthquake; -tel (from: hotel) motel, boatel, airtel; -burger (from: hamburger) fishburger, beefburger;; -scape (from: landscape) seascape, townscape; Euro- (from: European) Euromarket, Eurotunnel, Eurocard, etc. Linguists treat them as pseudo affixes (or semi-affixes).

35. Suffixation: Practical 1 Give a full morphologicalanalysis of suffixes in the following words Government, unpredictable, winner, fruitfulness, businesslike, desperate, international, buddy, lioness, illiterate, leadership, companionship, glorious, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, cookery, inaccessible, glorious, martyrdom, ex-builder, immediate, actor, addressee, easily, description, subdivision, summarize, sharpen, interesting, careful, reddish, designate, considerate, designative, designatory, graduator, obstinateness, soldiery, nominee, armful friendship – It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative. It consists of 2 morphemes “friend” and “-ship”. It consists of 2 morphemes “friend” and “-ship”. It is the first degree of derivation. It is the first degree of derivation.Semantically, “friend” is a root morpheme”, “friend” is a root morpheme”, “-ship” is a derivational morpheme – suffix. “-ship” is a derivational morpheme – suffix.Structurally, “friend” is a free morpheme; “friend” is a free morpheme; “-ship” is a bound morpheme. “-ship” is a bound morpheme.Diachronically: Suffix “-ship” is of native origin. Suffix “-ship” is of native origin.Synchronically: Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a quality or condition of being a friend”; Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a quality or condition of being a friend”; it doesn’t change the part of speech of a derivative; it doesn’t change the part of speech of a derivative; it is a Noun-forming suffix; it is a Noun-forming suffix; it is stylistically neutral and it is stylistically neutral and it is a productive suffix it is a productive suffix.

36. Suffixation: Practical 2 D efine meanings of suffixes in the following words Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes in the following words: Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes in the following words: Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, lioness, birdie, nestling, booklet, boredom, performance, temperature, partnership, similarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanist Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes in the following words: Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes in the following words: Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, useful, suitable, funny, jealous, notional, businesslike, informative, watered, kind-hearted, capitalist, desperate, starry, starred, woolen, illiterate Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes in the following words: Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes in the following words: Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, identify, illustrate, deliberate, circulate, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes in the following words: Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes in the following words: Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, affectionately, frustratingly

37. Productive Ways of Word-Formation: Compounding (p.122 – 124) Compounding is combining of 2 or more stems of words in order to form a third word with a new meaning: Compounding is combining of 2 or more stems of words in order to form a third word with a new meaning: a handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-see The second word usually identifies an object while The second word usually identifies an object while the first word specifies what kind of object it is: water tank/ tank water, washing machine/ machine washing, table game/ game table

38. Word-composition: Classification of Compound words 7 aspects to classify compounds are known : 1. Structural 2. Morphological 3. Semantic 4. Functional 5. Syntactic functions 6. Phonetic 7. Graphical

39. Compounding: Structural classification (1) (p. 122) Structurally, compounds are characterized by a specific order and arrangement of stems. It is usually the second stem that is a structural and a semantic center of a compound: It is usually the second stem that is a structural and a semantic center of a compound: a matchbox, freehanded, well known. The second component is often called “the head” of a compound word, and the first component – its “modifier”.

40. Compounding: Structural classification (cont) Degree of semantic independence of stems (p.122) According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds might be of 2 different types: subordinate and coordinate compounds. Subordinate compounds are words the components of which are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance. It is the second component that forms the semantic and structural center of a compound word: a speedometer, a baby-sitter, a shareholder. In coordinate compounds both stems are semantically equal in importance. Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: additive compounds and additive compounds and reduplicative compounds. reduplicative compounds.

41. Compounding: Structural classification (cont) Coordinate compounds Additive compounds are formed from stems of independently functioning words of the same part of speech. They denote an object that is two things at the same time: secretary-stenographer, Anglo-Saxon, blue-green, parent-teacher (association). Additive compounds are formed from stems of independently functioning words of the same part of speech. They denote an object that is two things at the same time: secretary-stenographer, Anglo-Saxon, blue-green, parent-teacher (association). Reduplicative compounds are made up by repetition of the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: fifty-fifty, tick-tock, etc. Reduplicative compounds are made up by repetition of the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: fifty-fifty, tick-tock, etc. Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds: an exact duplication of the first stem in a word: hush-hush, goody-goody, bye-bye; an exact duplication of the first stem in a word: hush-hush, goody-goody, bye-bye; variation of consonants in the root: clap-trap, willy-nilly variation of consonants in the root: clap-trap, willy-nilly variation of vowels in the root: chitchat, zigzag, ping-pong. variation of vowels in the root: chitchat, zigzag, ping-pong. Sometimes such words are called “ricochet words”. Some of the researchers do not treat coordinative compounds as compound words, as they don’t contain either a head or a modifier in their structure (see: Minor ways of word formation, p. 130)

42. Compounding: Structural classification (cont) Neo-classical compounds (p. 124) Some compound words contain parts which are not themselves independent words. They are mostly compounds formed from Latin and Greek loanwords, for example, in a word like bibliography neither biblio-, nor -graphy are words in Modern English. Such compounds are treated as neo-classical compounds and their parts are defined as “combining forms”: bio-, electro-, tele-, -ology, -phile, -scope (biography, telescope, Philology).

43. Compounding: Practical 1 Define types of the following compounds according to the degree of their structural and semantic independence: subordinate – coordinate: additive, reduplicative: complete repetition, variation of consonants/vowels One-sided, way-laid, onrush, hotchpotch, two-party (system), saw dust, shipshape, tricolor, freshman, tear- gas, hustle-bustle, goody-goody, take-home, week-end, week-ender, go-between, lipstick, fellow-lodger, willy- nilly, athlete-gymnast, triennial, eye-lid, Anglo-American, tick-tacks, hoity-toity, bye-bye, round-faced, star-chart, tit-bit, woman-hater, hotchpotch, baby-sitter, helter- skelter, finger-print, director-manager, hurdy-gurdy, a blow-ball, hobnob, dairymaid, Afro-Asian, eyelevel, standpoint, hush-hush, director-producer, quake-stricken, slink-pink, shake-shack, mother-daughter (relationships), detective-policeman, flip-flop, Chinese-Canadian

44. Compounding: Morphological Classification (2) Types of stems joined together (p. 124) According to the morphological types of stems joined together, compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: neutral and syntactic. Neutral compounds may be of 3 types: 1.compounds proper that are formed by simple stems: ice-cold, bedroom, tallboy; 2.derivational compounds one of the stems of which is derived: kind-hearted, music-lover, absent-mindedness, grass-hopper; 3.compounds with a shortened stem: T-shirt, TV-set, phone call. Syntactic compounds consist of elements typical of a phrase or a sentence (articles, prepositions, particles, etc.): Jack-of-all-trades; a go-between, a mother-in-law, a sit-in, a forget- me-not, a man-of-war, up-to-date, etc

45. Compounding: Practical 2 Define types of the following compounds according to the morphological types of stems joined together: neutral - syntactic proper, derivational, with shortened stem Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to- understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time (voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), hanky-panky, e- mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume (piece), week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-than-life (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, icebound (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-manager, stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-sighted, shooting-star, sitter-in, paper-money, panic-stricken, detective-manager, stay-at-home (moms), a feel-good (factor)

46. Compounding: Semantic Classification (3) Degree of motivation (p. 124) Semantically, compounds are treated as idiomatic or non-idiomatic compounds of different degree of motivation The meaning of a non-idiomatic compound word can be deduced from the meanings of its components: The meaning of a non-idiomatic compound word can be deduced from the meanings of its components: a reading-room, an evening gown. The meaning of an idiomatic compound cannot be defined from the meanings of their stems and the degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent parts is very different, cf.: bull-in-a-china-shop (politics). The meaning of an idiomatic compound cannot be defined from the meanings of their stems and the degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent parts is very different, cf.: bull-in-a-china-shop (politics).

47. Compounding: Semantic Classification (3) Degree of motivation (cont) (p. 123) According to the degree of their motivation, compounds may be of 3 types: completely motivated, completely motivated, partially motivated, and partially motivated, and completely non-motivated. completely non-motivated. In completely motivated compounds both components are used in their direct meanings: shoemaker, headache, street lamp. In partially motivated compounds one component is used in its direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: a flowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdog. Completely non-motivated compounds lack any motivation, i.e. there is no connection between the meaning of a compound and the meanings of its components, cf., fiddlesticks means “nonsense”, eye-wash - “something that is said or done to deceive a person”, red tape – “bureaucracy”. red tape – “bureaucracy”.

48. Compounding: Practical 3 Define the degree of motivation in the following compounds: (completely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivated) a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-go-lucky, red tape, will-o’- the-wisp, kith-and-kin, devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out- and-out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-gathering, runoff, walkie-talkie

49. Compounding: Functional Classification (p.123) Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech: their word-class is indicated by the second stem of a compound. Compound words may belong to different word-classes: 1.nouns: a birthday, a weekend, a single mother; 2.adjectives: long-legged, peace-loving, easy-going; 3.adverbs: everywhere, outdoors, inside; 4.pronouns: someone, nothing; 5.connectives: within, without; 6.verbs formed by means of conversion: to blacklist, to blackmail; 7.verbs with verbal and adverbial stems: to bypass, to offset.

50. Compounding: Functional Classification Word-class patterns of compound words (p. 123 – 124) N + N: railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash; N + N: railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash; Adj + N: short-term, blackberry, bluestocking; Adj + N: short-term, blackberry, bluestocking; N + Part I: soul-baring, fence-building, law-making, N + Part I: soul-baring, fence-building, law-making, N + Part II: horror-struck, smoke-blackened, technology-rejected; N + Part II: horror-struck, smoke-blackened, technology-rejected; Adj + Part II: short-lived, ill-prepared; Adj + Part II: short-lived, ill-prepared; Adv + Part II: well known, badly-injured, half-seen; Adv + Part II: well known, badly-injured, half-seen; Adj + Part I: freethinking, aggressive-sounding, slow- burning; Adj + Part I: freethinking, aggressive-sounding, slow- burning; N + Adj: air tight, tobacco-mad; N + Adj: air tight, tobacco-mad; Num + N: four-volume, one-vote, first-time; etc. Num + N: four-volume, one-vote, first-time; etc.

51. Compounding: Practical 4 Identify functional patterns according to which the following compound words are built a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean (carpet), fee- paying (school), well-meant, face-to-face, small-minded, man-of-the-people (impression), job-for-life (security), single-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and- Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-goer, feel-good (factor), money-making (business), short-lived (plan)

52. Compounding: Syntactic Classification (5) Functions in a Sentence In a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. They may be used as the following members of a sentence: Subject - Japan’s old job-for-life security has vanished… Subject - Japan’s old job-for-life security has vanished… Object – I forced my manservant to help me… Object – I forced my manservant to help me… Predicate – My mentor was a great waterman. Langdon backpedaled; Predicate – My mentor was a great waterman. Langdon backpedaled; Attribute – A definite end-of-the-holiday gloom was in the air; Attribute – A definite end-of-the-holiday gloom was in the air; Adverbial modifier of manner, time and order – Adverbial modifier of manner, time and order – … beautifully written in a neat penmanship… … He sat white knuckled in a passenger seat…

53. Compounding: Practical 5 Identify syntactic functions of the following compounds in a sentence: ( subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier, etc.) 1. He was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired fellow of 50. 2. He proclaimed a hand-off policy (Davis). 3. That was a hand-to-hand confrontation (Davis). 4. …up-and-coming number of Virginia’s ruling elite (Davis). 5. That was a long-term impact (Davis). 6. That produced a mopping-up effort (Davis). 7. They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling). 8. He is a New Yorker. 9. Carryover funds can be used to cover a deficit. 10. The team conducted its review on-site. 11. The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.

54. Compounding: Phonetic Classification (p. 123) Phonetically, a compound word gets a new stress pattern. Compounds may be built according to the following stress patterns: 1. primary stress on the first component ( ┴ ─ ): doorway, blackboard. 2. double stress, i.e. primary stress on the first component and secondary stress on the second component ( ┴ ┬ ): blood-vessel, washing-machine. 3. level stress – both stems possess individual stresses( ┴ ┴ ): open- minded, grass-green. Primary stress is traditionally typical of nouns, Secondary and level stress – of adjectives and adjectival groups.

55. Compounding: Graphical Classification (p. 123) Compounds could be written in various ways. According to the means of connection, compounds are divided into four groups: 1. compounds formed by simple placing one stem after another without any linking element: headache, warpath, flowerpot; 2. compounds stems of which are coined with the help of linking letters such as -o-, -i-, -s-: Afro-Asian, handicraft, statesman, neuroscience; 3. compounds written with a hyphen: third-rate, best-seller, well- being; 4. compounds written as separate words: awriting table, a dining room, a school bus, single mothers.

56. Compounding: Practical 6 Define graphical types of connections in the following compounds: (simple placing, linking letters, a hyphen, separate writing) Handicraft, quick-witted, hustle-bustle, snowman, Austro-Asian, buttercup, saw dust, speedometer, hue and cry, bumble-bee, hump-backed, hurdy-gurdy, sportsman, handiwork, hit-or-miss, Morphosyntax, borderline, anthropologist, statesman

57. Compounding: Practical 7 Give a full morphological analysis of the following compound words: Buttonhole, fifty-fifty, father-in- law, make-up, hush-hush, wait- and-see, peace-fighter, pell-mell, bookmaker, tiptoe, progressive- minded (people), nuclear- powder (submarines), bye-bye, a paper-littered table, actor- producer, riff-raff, evil-hearted (people), put-it-together toy set, sit-on-the-fence (policy), hand- washable (clothes), clip-clap, color-blinded (people), duty-free (goods), a short-staffed (office), middle-of-the-roader, higgledy- piggledy, looker-on, (the) not- always-appropriate (methods), teacher-made (tests), coach- manager, flip-flop, Morphosemantics, detective- manager a woman-hater It is a neutral derivational compound word; It is a neutral derivational compound word; It consists of two stems: a simple stem woman and a derivative stem hater; It consists of two stems: a simple stem woman and a derivative stem hater; It’s formed by the pattern N + V-er= N; It’s formed by the pattern N + V-er= N; It is a compound noun; It is a compound noun; It is a compound of the subordinate type: the second stem hater forms a semantic and a structural centre of a compound; It is a compound of the subordinate type: the second stem hater forms a semantic and a structural centre of a compound; It is a completely motivated compound. It is a completely motivated compound. The two stems are joined together by a hyphen; The two stems are joined together by a hyphen;

58. Productive Ways of Word-Formation: Conversion (p. 126) Conversion is a process when a word is converted from one word-class to another without any changes of a form, but only through the changes in its paradigm: to cut – a cut, to swim – a swim, a shoulder – to shoulder. Paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a certain part of speech – noun, verb, adjective, adverb (p. 73): nouns: a girl – girls – girl’s; verbs: to write – wrote – written – writing – have written – will write, etc. Conversion occurred as a result of historical processes – leveling of endings, leveling of endings, reduction of unstressed vowels, reduction of unstressed vowels, simplification of stems, etc. simplification of stems, etc.

59. Conversion: Historical background (p. 126) In the history of the English language words love – to love, work – to work, smoke – to smoke, answer – to answer, drink – to drink had different morphological features and possessed their own special paradigms: OE lufu (love) – lufian (to love), answaru (an answer) – andswarian (to answer), drinku (a drink) - drinkan (to drink), smocka (a smoke) – smockian (to smoke). Complicated morphological changes caused by the analytical tendencies in the development of the grammatical structure of the English language resulted in accidental identity of verbal and nominal forms. Cases of conversion in the XIV-th century imitated such pairs of words in analogy for they were: numerous in the vocabulary and numerous in the vocabulary and subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns. subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns.

60. Conversion: Structural Patterns (p. 127) Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive and influences almost every part of speech. Traditionally, conversion regards verbs and nouns transformations. Verbs made from nouns (N  V) are the most numerous : to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to chin, to fist, etc., cf., My mother clothed and shoed me. to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to chin, to fist, etc., cf., My mother clothed and shoed me. Verbs can also be made from adjectives (Adj  V): to pale, to yellow, to cool, etc., cf., He narrowed his eyes. to pale, to yellow, to cool, etc., cf., He narrowed his eyes. Nouns are made from verbs (V  N): a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, etc., a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, etc., cf., She gave a little shiver. cf., She gave a little shiver.

61. Conversion: Structural Patterns (cont) Adjectives are made from nouns (N  Adj): a rich, a blind, a mute, etc., a rich, a blind, a mute, etc., cf., He is an absolute imbecile in his profession. cf., He is an absolute imbecile in his profession. Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion: to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, etc., to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, etc., cf., I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos. cf., I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos. the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”. the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”.

62. Conversion: Semantic correlations (p. 127) Semantic associations of converted verbs may be traced in: 1. action characteristic of the object: witness – to witness, dog – to dog; 1. action characteristic of the object: witness – to witness, dog – to dog; 2.instrumental use of the object: elbow – to elbow, hammer – to hammer; 2.instrumental use of the object: elbow – to elbow, hammer – to hammer; 3.acquisition or addition of the object: to fish, to tail, to grass, to dust; 3.acquisition or addition of the object: to fish, to tail, to grass, to dust; 4.derivation of an object: to skin, to dust, to bone; 4.derivation of an object: to skin, to dust, to bone; 5.location: to bag, to pocket, to house; 5.location: to bag, to pocket, to house; 6.temporal relations: to winter, to week-end. 6.temporal relations: to winter, to week-end. Nouns converted from verbs may denote: 1.moment of an action: a jump, a swim, a step, a laugh; 1.moment of an action: a jump, a swim, a step, a laugh; 2.agent or doer of an action: a help, a cheat, a bore; 2.agent or doer of an action: a help, a cheat, a bore; 3.place of an action: a drive, a walk, a stand; 3.place of an action: a drive, a walk, a stand; 4.result of an action: a cut, a peel, a find, a make. 4.result of an action: a cut, a peel, a find, a make.

63. Conversion: Practical 1 Define semantic correlations within the following pairs of converted words: a pocket – to pocket, to jump – a jump, supper – to supper, grass – to grass, a winter – to winter, to shave – a shave, to make – a make, a face – to face, to cut – a cut, to smoke – a smoke, to swim – a swim, milk – to milk, to come down – a come down, pale – to pale, in / out – ins and outs, wounded – the wounded, a nose – to nose, a shoulder – to shoulder, an elbow - to elbow, a suspect – to suspect

64. Conversion: Functional correlations Functionally, in a sentence converted words may be: Subject: The silver had been taken by the murderer; Subject: The silver had been taken by the murderer; Object: I suggested a blind; Object: I suggested a blind; Attribute: I bought a new put-together toy set; Attribute: I bought a new put-together toy set; Predicate: My mother clothed and shoed me; Predicate: My mother clothed and shoed me; Predicative: She is still an evil; Predicative: She is still an evil; Adverbial modifier: He paused a moment longer, eyeing the metal threshold, etc. Adverbial modifier: He paused a moment longer, eyeing the metal threshold, etc.

65. Conversion: Practical 2 Define patterns of conversion in the following pairs of words: a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to trim – trim – a trim a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to trim – trim – a trim

66. Conversion: Practical 3 Give a full morphological analysis of converted words in the following sentences: 1. Sometimes nothings mean more than many somethings. 2. Good has come out of evil. 3. She gave a little shiver. 4. The English exercised a surprisingly tolerant hand-off policy… 5. I vouch to him. (C. Doyle) 6. My wife was dogged by ill health for twelve years (M Spark) 7. I narrowed my eyes… 8. Her face blushed – then paled (A. Christie) 9. What would happen to our father who was khakied like every other man? (L. Lee) 10. I was speculating with various whys and whats and whos … Example: I saw no blinds on the window. Blind(s) – It is a Noun converted from an Adjective It is a Noun converted from an Adjective It is a converted noun It is a converted noun It has a grammatical inflection –s of the plural form of a noun It has a grammatical inflection –s of the plural form of a noun It denotes “an object that shuts out light” It denotes “an object that shuts out light” It functions as an Object in the sentence It functions as an Object in the sentence

67. Productive Ways of Word-Formation: Shortening (p. 127) Shortening or abbreviation of words is a way of formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the word for a whole. 2 different types of abbreviations: graphical abbreviations and graphical abbreviations and lexical abbreviations lexical abbreviations

68. Shortening: Graphical abbreviations (p. 128) Graphical abbreviations – substitutes of words used for writing purposes in written speech: scientific books, advertisements, letters, articles, etc. According to the way of formation, graphical abbreviations are subdivided into the following types: initial shortenings – shortened words that keep the initial letter only; initial shortenings – shortened words that keep the initial letter only; the shortened variant is read as its full English equivalent i.e. – “that is”, e.g. – “for example” syllable shortenings – shortened words that keep syllables; syllable shortenings – shortened words that keep syllables; the remaining part is read as a full word Oct - “October”, Dr.- “Doctor”

69. Shortening: Lexical abbreviations (p. 128) Lexical abbreviations represent shortened words used in oral speech. Lexical abbreviations fall into 2 groups: lexical abbreviations proper and lexical abbreviations proper and clippings. clippings. Lexical abbreviations proper are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding. In this case they are made up of the following components: –initial sounds (IT - “informational technology”), –syllables of the components of a word-group (pop-music - “popular music”), –shortened elements of a compound word (V-day – “Victory day”).

70. Shortening: Lexical abbreviations (cont) There are 2 types of lexical abbreviations: alphabetisms and alphabetisms and acronyms. acronyms. The difference between them lies on the ways of their formation and reading. Alphabetisms are formed and read as a succession of alphabetical reading of the constituent letters: G.M.T. – “Greenwich mean time”; V.I.P. - “a very important person”; EEC - “European Economic Community”, INTL – “international”, oj - “orange juice”; Acronyms are formed and read as a succession of syllables denoted by the constituent letters (names of organizations): UNO – “United Nations Organization”, SARS – “Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome”, SWAK – “sealed with a kiss” (at the end of a letter).

71. Shortening: Clipping (p. 128) Words may be built by the process of clipping – the process of cutting off one or several syllables of a word. In some cases it is the stressed syllable that is left after cutting off: fridge from “refrigerator”, exam from “examination”. Sometimes, however, the unstressed syllable remains: phone from “telephone”, plane from “airplane”, Bess from “Elizabeth”.

72. Shortening: Clipping (cont) There are 4 types of clipping: 1. aphaeresis (initial clipping), 2. apocope (final clipping), 3. syncope (middle clipping) and 4. a mixed type.

73. Shortening: Clipping (cont) Aphaeresis takes place when the first part of a word is clipped: Aphaeresis takes place when the first part of a word is clipped: phone (telephone), fence (defense), spite (despite), cologne (au-de- cologne), bach (bachelor’s snack). Apocope occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: Apocope occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: demo (demonstration), limo (limousine). Syncope happens when the middle part of a word is clipped: Syncope happens when the middle part of a word is clipped: maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles). A mixed type involves clipping at the beginning and at the end of a word: tec (detective), flu (influenza). A mixed type involves clipping at the beginning and at the end of a word: tec (detective), flu (influenza).

74. Shortening: Ellipsis. Substantivation. S hortening may affects not only words but word-groups, as well. Shortened phrases may appear as a result of ellipsis and substantivation (substantivalisation). Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words in a phrase when the remaining part keeps the lexical meaning of a whole phrase: a sit-down is “a sit-down demonstration”, Nat is “a National Party member”. Substantivation is dropping of a final noun in an attributive phrase when the remaining adjective keeps the meaning and all the syntactical functions of the noun: pub (n) – “a public house”, finals (n) – “final examinations”, hobby (n) – “a hobbyhorse”. hobby (n) – “a hobbyhorse”.

75. Shortening: Practical 1 Define types of the following shortened words and methods of their formation: (lexical abbreviations proper: alphabetisms, acronyms; clipping: aphaeresis, apocope, syncope, mixed type; ellipsis; substantivation) UNO, doc, sis, T-shirt, Aussie, e.g., A.D., P.T.O., prep, ft, FBI, gent, memo, maths, co-ed, M.P., fence, LA, U.K., SARS, finals, taxi, EU, CNN, demo, exams, comfy, flu, Feb, USA, adj, Dr, Mrs, N.Y., info, e-mail, hol, 30 ℃, V- day, deco, cc, Joe, usu, in, a foot, metrop, circs, veggy, H.L., H.C., i.e., op. cit., Jan, TV, Beth, p.m., flu, fence, specs, spite, DOG-phone, comfy, a pub

76. Shortening: Functions in a sentence Shortened words may fulfill the various functions in a sentence: –Subject: The BBC announced the report… –Attribute: The LCD screen provided directions in several languages; –Object: I would like to have your e-mail; –Predicative: They were the original ATMs; –Predicate: He was repeatedly phoning with no answer, etc.

77. Shortening: Practical 2 Give a full morphological analysis of the shortened words in the following sentences: 1.…kids sleeping on backpacks and roving out to their portable MP3’s players… 2.In a military manoeuvre worthy of the CIA… 3.He managed to manoeuvre the hijacked taxi to the far side of the Bois de Bouloque 4.The LCD screen provided directions in seven languages (D. Brown). 5.…a keypad similar to that of a bank ATM terminal (D. Brown). 6.In the area without phone and e-mail 7.The BBC producer loved Teabing’s hot premise. Example: P.T.O. 1. “Please Turn Over” 2. It’s a three member word-group 3. It’s a graphical abbreviation: initial shortening 4. There are no grammatical inflections 5. It is a verbal group

78. Minor Ways of Word-Formation (p. 129 – 130) Minor ways of word-formation are not frequently used in Modern English for the formation of new words. They are: Blending Blending Backformation Backformation Sound-and-stress interchange Sound-and-stress interchange Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia

79. Minor Ways of Word-Formation: Blending (p. 129) Blending is compounding by means of clipped words, e.g.: Telegenic = television + photogenic Telegenic = television + photogenic Oxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge Oxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge Medicare = medical + care Medicare = medical + care Cashomat = cash + automat Cashomat = cash + automat Fruice = fruit + juice Fruice = fruit + juice Popcert = popular + concert Popcert = popular + concert Midterm = middle + tem Midterm = middle + tem Yarden = yard + garden Yarden = yard + garden Dollarature = dollar + literature Dollarature = dollar + literature Cell-phone = cellular + telephone Cell-phone = cellular + telephone Wango = waltz + tango Wango = waltz + tango Toyotire = Toyota + tire Toyotire = Toyota + tire Senseyes = sensitive + eyes Senseyes = sensitive + eyes

80. Minor Ways of Word-Formation: Backformation Back-formation, or negative derivation is the formation of new words by means of cutting off an element that was mistakenly taken for a suffix. Back-formation, or negative derivation is the formation of new words by means of cutting off an element that was mistakenly taken for a suffix. the noun editor was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb to edit was produced by means of back-formation the noun editor was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb to edit was produced by means of back-formation the formation of the noun greed from the adjective greedy the formation of the noun greed from the adjective greedy the production of the adjective difficult from the noun difficulty the production of the adjective difficult from the noun difficulty the verb to ice-skate – from the noun ice-skater, or, probably, ice-skating the verb to laze from the noun lazer the verb to laze from the noun lazer the verb to window-shop – from the noun window-shopping the verb to window-shop – from the noun window-shopping (to baby-sit - a baby-sitter, to force-land – force-landing, to finger-print – finger-printing, to gloom – gloomy, to sculpt – a sculptor, to emote - - emotion, to donate – donation, to diagnose – diagnosis)

81. Minor Ways of Word-Formation: Sound-and-stress Interchange Sound-and-stress-interchange is traced in the formation of new words that differ in a root-forming vowel/ consonant or stress patterns, e.g., - Wide - widtha record – to record - Strong - strengtha protest – to protest - to invite – invitationa contrast – to contrast - to describe – descriptiona rebel – to rebel - to analyze – analysisan ally – to ally - a house – housinga suspect – to suspect - to conclude – conclusionto ridicule - ridiculous

82. Minor Ways of Word-Formation: Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is imitation of different kinds of sounds produced by animals, birds, human beings, and inanimate objects, e.g.: - Cocks cry “cock-a-doodle-do” - Ducks “quack” - Frogs “croak” In names of some animals, birds, and games, e.g., - a cucoo, a crow, a humming-bird, cricket