1. Reinforcement theory  Reinforcement. – The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. – Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

2. Reinforcement Theory

3.  Law of effect. – Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences of behavior. – Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

4. Reinforcement Theory  Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod). – The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior. –Uses four basic strategies: Positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement. Punishment. Extinction.

5. Reinforcement Theory  Positive reinforcement. – The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings. – Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers. –A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

6. Reinforcement Theory  Principles governing reinforcement. – Law of contingent reinforcement. The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited. – Law of immediate reinforcement. The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited.

7. Reinforcement Theory  Scheduling reinforcement. – Continuous reinforcement. Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. – Intermittent reinforcement. Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.

8. Reinforcement Theory  Negative reinforcement. – Also known as avoidance. – The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting.

9. Reinforcement Theory  Punishment. – The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

10. Reinforcement Theory  Implications of using punishment. – Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction. – Arbitrary punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction. –Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

11. Reinforcement Theory  Extinction. – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior. – The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not exhibited. – The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

12. Reinforcement Theory

13. Equity Theory and Social Comparison Workers are more likely to be motivated when they have ratios equal to those of the comparison person or persons. Outcomes of Individual versus Outcomes of Others Inputs of Individual Inputs of Others When the ratio is not right, the worker might attempt to alter the outcome, input, or just leave.

14. INPUTSOUTCOMES Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations AA ge AA ttendance II nterpersonal skills, communication skills JJ ob effort (long hours) LL evel of education PP ast experience CC hallenging job assignments FF ringe benefits JJ ob perquisites (parking space or office location) JJ ob security MM onotony PP romotion

15. INPUTSOUTCOMES Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations (continued)  Performance  Personal appearance  Seniority  Social status  Technical skills  Training  Recognition  Responsibility  Salary  Seniority benefits  Status symbols  Working conditions

16. Equity Theory EquityOutcomes =Outcomes Inputs Inputs NegativeOutcomes <Outcomes Inequity InputsInputs PositiveOutcomes >Outcomes Inequity InputsInputs Person Comparison other

17. Inequity as a Motivational Process Individual perceives inequity Individual experiences tension Individual wants to reduce tension Individual takes action

18. AA ctually change inputs AA ctually change outcomes MM entally distort inputs or outcomes LL eave organization or transfer to another department CC hange the reference group DD istort others’ inputs or outcomes Ways to Reduce Tension Produced by Inequity

19. Emphasizes processes used to reach a decision Focuses on fairness of rules and procedures Fair procedures lead to high job satisfaction and performance Emphasizes processes used to reach a decision Focuses on fairness of rules and procedures Fair procedures lead to high job satisfaction and performance  Procedural Justice Employees going beyond what is formally required by the job Focus on fair exchanges among employees Employees going beyond what is formally required by the job Focus on fair exchanges among employees  Organizational Citizenship Behavior Decision-making Using Equity Theory

20. Organizational Uses of the Equity Model TT reat employees fairly PP eople make decisions concerning equity after comparing themselves with others PP rocedural justice influences perceptions of organizational fairness

21. Expectancy Theory of Motivation People strive for worthwhile outcomes. Expectancy is a subjective hunch ( 0 to 1) about attaining performance. Instrumentality is a subjective hunch (0 to 1) that rewards will follow performance. Valence (- 100 to +100) is the importance of outcome. Motivation = E x I x V. (A zero for any value will eliminate motivation.)

22. Basic Assumptions of the Expectancy Model  A combination of forces determines behavior  Individuals decide their own behaviors in organizations  Different individuals have different needs and goals, and want different rewards  Individuals decide among alternatives based on their perceptions

23.  First-level outcomes—results of doing the job  Second-level outcomes—positive or negative events produced by first-level outcomes  Expectancy—effort-performance belief  Instrumentality—relationship between first- level and second-level outcomes.  Valence—preference for a second-level outcome Key Variables in the Expectancy Model

24. Expectancy Model in Action Effort Attend class Study Take notes Prepare for exams Performance: Grade in Class A B C D F Self-confidence First-level OutcomesSecond-level Outcomes Self-esteem Personal happiness Overall GPA Approval of others Respect of others Expectancy Instrumentality

25. Expectancy Theory

26.  Accurate measurement of effort is difficult  Importance of second-level outcomes hard to determine AA ssumption that motivation is a conscious choice process Potential Problems of the Expectancy Model  Works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution (e.g. Canada, U.S.A., U.K.) rather than fatalism (e.g. Brazil, Iran, China)

27. Organizational Uses of the Expectancy Model Determine outcomes that each employee values Define measurable performance levels Ensure that desired performance can be attained Link desired performance and employees’ outcomes Remember that motivation is based on perceptions Make sure changes in rewards are linked to employee’s effort

28. Goal Theory 1.Specific goals are better than generalized goals. 2.Performance increases with goal difficulty. 3.Worker must accept the goal. 4.Goals are more effective when used to evaluate performance.

29. Goal Theory, continued 5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards. 6. Deadlines improve goal effectiveness. 7. Learning goal orientation better than performance goal orientation. 8. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

30. Important Goal Characteristics SPECIFIC GOALS DIFFICULT GOALS FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS COMPETITION PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING MOTIVATION GOAL ACCEPTANCE GOAL COMMITMENT