1. Commas

2. Commas: A comma represents a short pause. It tells the reader to hesitate before continuing the sentence. Commas also help set up relationships among parts of a sentence and make long sentences easier to read. The TWO basic uses of the comma: 1. commas can be used to separate similar items 2. one or more commas can be used to set off a single item at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

3. Commas with Compound Sentences A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so and yet). Use a comma before the conjunction to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence. Examples: Many families in developing countries produce their own food, but most families in the United States rely on the food industry for their food. The food industry takes food from the place where it is grown, and it distributes the food where it is needed.

4. Commas Between Items in a Series Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Two Exceptions: 1. When each of the items in a series is joined to the next item by a conjunction, no commas are necessary. Example: Supermarkets and grocery stores and restaurants all sell a variety of foods to consumers. 2. Commas are not necessary between pairs of items that are thought of as a single item. Example: I asked for ham and eggs, coffee and cream, and bread and butter.

5. Adjectives Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank. Example: The dog’s matted, filthy coat needed washing. Do not use commas to separate adjectives that must stay in a specific order. Example: The tightly restricted food market is regulated by the government.

6. Commas After Introductory Material Commas are usually needed to set off introductory material from the rest of the sentence. Use a comma after an introductory word, phrase or clause.

7. Kinds of Introductory Material WordsIntroductory WordsNo, I will not order the magazine you want. Nouns of Direct AddressCindy, could you search appliances on the Internet? Common ExpressionsOf course, we can get that printed for you. Introductory AdverbsObviously, the student had tried. Hurriedly, she hid the present she had wrapped. PhrasesPrepositional PhrasesIn the catalog next to the sink, you can find the shoes you are looking for. Participial PhrasesJumping over the fence, the horse caught its back hoof. Infinitive PhrasesTo buy things on the Internet, a credit card is often required. ClausesAdverb ClausesWhen World War II ended, shopping centers became popular.

8. Nonessential Expressions An essential expression is a word, phrase, or clause that provides information that cannot be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. (Restrictive) Nonessential expressions provide additional, nonrestrictive, information in a sentence. You can remove nonessential material from a sentence, and the remaining sentence will still contain all the necessary information required by the reader.

9. Essential and Nonessential Expressions AppositiveEssentialMy sister Joanne went to the Nicollet Mall in Minnesota. NonessentialJoanne, my sister, went to the Nicollet Mall in Minnesota. Participial PhraseEssentialThe teacher wearing a blue dress took the students to the mall. NonessentialMrs. Goff, wearing a blue dress, took the students to the mall. Adjective ClauseEssentialThe mall that we enjoyed the most had three levels and a swimming pool. NonessentialThe Pine-Woods Center, which was our favorite, had three levels and a swimming pool.

10. Commas With Places, Dates and Titles When a geographical name is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item. Example: I traveled from Taos, New Mexico, to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. When a date is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item except in the case of a month followed by a day. Examples: On Friday, April 17, we will have a special meeting. The city’s new subway system ran its first train on June 11, 1890. When a name is followed by one or more titles, use a comma after the name and after each title. Example: I noticed that Jeremy McGuire, Sr., works better.