1. Cognitive and Motor Development Chapter 2

2. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Domains of Human Development

3. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cognitive Development Motor Development

4. There is a strong relationship between human intellectual function and movement: Any intellectual change is also accompanied by a change in motor function.

5. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Objectives Describe Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. –Sensorimotor –Preoperations –Concrete Operations –Formal Operations –Postformal Operations Explain two general theories of intellectual development in adulthood. Discuss intellectual decline in older adulthood. Describe the link between knowledge development and sport performance.

6. Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) Swiss psychologist, developmental theorist, and philosopher Interested in the process of thinking Established the clinical method of research –Collected data during question-and-answer sessions 1896-1980

7. Four Stages of Piaget’s Theory StageAge/Period of Occurrence SensorimotorBirth to 2 years Preoperational2 to 7 years Concrete operational7 to 11 years Formal operationalEarly to mid-adolescence 11 to 12 years

8. Piaget’s Theory Adaptation –Cognitive development occurs thorugh this process –Adjusting to the demands of the environment and intellectualizing those adjustments –Two facets of adaptation Assimilation Accommodation

9. Piaget’s Theory Assimilation –Children interpret new experiences based upon their present interpretation of the world. –Child assimilates past experience Past experience tells child to use one hand to grab large ball because it worked with rattles and smaller objects.

10. Piaget’s Theory Accommodation –Adjustments or modifications in the thinking process that will become a part of a child’s new cognitive repetoire. –Child accommodates new information Child is unable to grasp the ball with one hand. He accommodates by using two hands or adapting the one-handed grasp.

11. Adaption = Assimilation + Accommodation

12. Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory Theory lacks scientific control. Piaget used his own children to study. Subjects were not studied across the lifespan. Piaget may have underestimated a child’s capabilities. Theory does not discern between competency and performance. Theory does not account for the influence of motivation and emotion. Stages of developoment were too broad. Developoment is described, but never explained.

13. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage SubstageAge of Occurrence 1.Exercise of reflexesBirth to 1 month 2. Primary circular reactions1 to 4 months 3. Secondary circular reactions4 to 8 months 4. Secondary schemata8 to 12 months 5. Tertiary circular reactions12 to 18 months 6. Invention of new means through mental combinations 18 to 24 months

14. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage EXERCISE OF REFLEXES Birth through 1 month Repetition of reflexes helps child to form the foundation for cognitive understanding –Reflexive movements are innate –Reflexive movements lead to new behaviors

15. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS End of month 1- month 4 Increased voluntary movement Primary reactions because always occur in close proximity to the infant Circular reactions because conscious effort to repeat movements

16. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 4 months - 8 months Continuation of primary circular reactions but incorporation of more enduring behaviors –Example: Banging pots and pans Integration of vision, hearing, grasping and movement behaviors –Example: See rattle. Reach rattle. Shake rattle. Imitation behaviors No permanence –Example: Remove object. Object is gone.

17. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Object Permanence http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUIn SY2CeY&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUIn SY2CeY&feature=related

18. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage SECONDARY SCHEMATA 8 months to 1 year New behaviors facilitated by increasing movement capabilities –Example: Crawling and creeping Repetition of experimentation and trial-and-error exploration continue Prediction of some actions and situations –Example: Parent rolls ball to child. Child roles it back. Child anticipates parent rolling the ball to him again.

19. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 1 year -1 1/2 years Active experimentation to acheive results / learn First level of visualizing an object beyond its immediate use –Example: Child sees the ball and knows she can have fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with it right now – it will be there later. Can distinguish self from others –Example: Child seeks help from immediate family members.

20. Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage INVENTION OF NEW MEANS THROUGH MENTAL COMBINATIONS 1 1/2 years - 2 years Recognition of objects and others as independent from self Understanding of properties of an object –Examples: Size, shape, color, texture, weight, use Semimental functioning: “Thinking with the body” is replaced with “thinking with the mind” –Example: Child can recall an event without a physical reanctment of what happened.

21. Summary: Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage Increasing awareness of the difference between the self and others. Recognition that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer in view. Production of the mental images that allow the contemplation of the past, present, and future.

22. dynamicgraphics/Jupiterimages What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?

24. (c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?

25. (c) Photodisc What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?

26. Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage 2-7 years Most significant development: –Verbal communication and language development linked to improved motor abilities Most significant limitation: –Children are unable to think logically

27. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage SubstageAge of Occurrence 1.Preconceptual2 to 4 years 2. Intuitive4 to 7 years

28. Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage PRECONCEPTUAL 2-4 years Use of symbols to represent someone/thing –Example: A rock represents a turtle Pretend play common –Example: Reading to Baby. Putting Baby to sleep. Egocentrism a serious deficiency of this stage –Socializing somewhat reducing egocentrism. Flawed thinking –Example: Drooping flower is “sad” – unrealistic. Transductive reasoning –Example: Missed breakfast, so it can’t be morning.

29. Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage INTUITIVE 4-7 years Reduced egocentrism –Example: Better at sharing Improvement in the use of symbols –Example: Use of symbols in mathematics Incapable of “conservation” –Example: When ball of clay transformed into elongated sausage – child believes it’s bigger Cannot consider multiple aspects of a problem at one time –Example: Bumblebee phenomenon in soccer

30. (c) Royalty Free/CORBIS Why is the activity pictured here an example of Preconceptual Substage?

31. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Conservation http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLE WVu815o&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLE WVu815o&feature=related

32. Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational Stage 7-11 years –Begins when child gains ability to conserve Improved ability to focus on more than one variable in problem solving situations –Example: Develop strategies in game situations Can only focus on objects, events or situations that are real or based on experience –Example: Unable to examine hypothetical or abstract situations mentally

33. Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational Stage Reversibility –Ability to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought processes –Example: Can reverse the order of the ball as they go through the tube Reversibility

34. Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational Stage Seriation –Ability to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristic –Example: Recognize height can determine position in a game of basketball Learning is enhanced through movement –Example: Piaget suggests teaching space or distance by having child move through space or distance

35. Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational Stage Begins at 11-12 years Able to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiences Abstract ideas are possible Never achieved by many individuals

36. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Formal Operations http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36 PpYPPZM&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36 PpYPPZM&feature=related

37. Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational Stage Interpropositional thought –Allows child to relate one or more parts of a proposition or situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem. –Applicable to complex movement –Example: Position of two players represents onset of a particular play. Ability to ‘read’ interrelationship (i.e., possible movement pattern) facilitates better counter play.

38. Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational Stage Hypothetical-deductive reasoning –A problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best one –Aids in emotional development and emerging values –Example: Child ponders, “Do I follow the crowd or do I want to fit in?”

39. Adulthood ~ Postformal Operations Adulthood not considered by Piaget –Others (Arlin,1975; Rybash et al., 1986) proposed a 5 th stage to Piaget’s Theory Discovery of new questions –Logical thinking about abstract ideas –Detect inconsistencies in ideas and attempt to reconcile them Exists in a minority of people –Highly educated –Culture that encourages new ideas and freethinking

40. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development Intellectual decline occur with age. –When, how much, why, what??? Growing field of study as baby boomers become ‘seniors’. Currently, two main theories –Total Intellectual Decline –Partial Intellectual Decline

41. Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development TOTAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINE Traditional view of aging Gradual, consistent, pervasive decline in overall intellectual ability throughout adult years Lacks strong scientific support today Studies partially backing this theory –Studies using Welchsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) –Seattle Longitudinal Study

42. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development WAIS – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale –11 components of intellectual ability 6 verbal, 5 performance –Found declines in intellect –Limitations Test designed to assess psychopathological behaviors – not intellect Reliability issues Dated research

43. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Seattle Longitudinal Study (1956-) –Participants: 5000+ participants aged 25 to 88 –Measurement: 6 primary mental abilities meaningful in daily work and life –Results: Performance increased until late 30s or early 40s Performance plateaued by mid 50s to early 60s Declines began in late 60s More decline when process was less central part of life By age 88, all participants showed decline in at least one intelligence ability, but none showed in all abilities –Conclusion: Few subjects showed global decline in intelligence.

44. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development PARTIAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINE Widely accepted theory Intellectual decline occurs in some areas and not others Much research support

45. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Contextual perspective –Learning and memory depend on a large number of non-cognitive and situational factors Culture –Seniors in China are highly respected. Intellectual decline in China is substantially less than in NA. Self-fulfilling prophesy –Individuals who think negatively decline more quickly. Knowledge base –Greater base of information may helps offset losses in processing efficiency. Other factors –One’s goals, motivation, social activities, daily routines, changes in emotion

46. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Biological changes influence decline –Neural activation slows Less efficient circulatory system –Brain decreases in size (variable) Neuronal losses are very gradual

47. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Type of memory influences decline Implicit memory –Unintentional, automatic, without awareness –Tested without adult being aware of being tested –Develops until adulthood and shows no decline Explicit memory –Deliberate and effortful –Tested by traditional tests of recall or recognition –Develops until adulthood but then shows decline

48. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Time of learning influences memory decline –Information learned early in life is easier to retrieve –Information learned in later life more susceptible to age-related decline

49. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development Time parameters influence decline Decreased performance in timed tasks –Older adults respond more slowly –Decline in speed of processing information is well-documented

50. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development “there are no simple rules about when age differences in memory will and will not occur, and if they do, whether differences will be small, modest, or large” (Zacks et al., 2000)

51. Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development RECOMMENDATIONS Practicing cognitive abilities will delay or avoid decline. A lifestyle that involves movement can limit the decline of intellect.

52. Knowledge Development and Sport Performance How do children become experts athletes?

53. © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Knowledge Development and Sport Performance Two types of knowledge –Declarative knowledge Factual information What to do Found in a novice performer –Procedural knowledge Production system How to do something Found in an expert performer

54. Knowledge Development and Sport Performance French & Thomas, 1987 –Purpose: Examine relationship between knowledge development, skill development, and expertise. –Method: 8-12 year old basketball players of varied skills; multiple instruments –Conclusion: Children learn “what to do” (i.e. declarative knowledge) before they acquire the physical skills to carry out their strategic plan successfully (i.e. “how to do it” – procedural knowledge). –Ongoing Research: Best combination of motor and cognitive instruction at what stages.