1. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-1 Invitation To Psychology Carol Wade and Carol Tavris PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College-Omaha

2. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-2 Memory

3. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-3 Memory Reconstructing the Past Memory and the Power of Suggestion In Pursuit of Memory The Three-Box Model of Memory How We Remember Why We Forget Autobiographical Memories

4. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-4 Reconstructing the Past

5. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-5 Reconstructing the Past The Manufacture of Memory The Fading Flashbulb The Conditions of Confabulation

6. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-6 The Manufacture of Memory Memory is selective. Recovering a memory is not playing a videotape –Memory involves inferences that fill in gaps in recall. –We are often unaware we have made such inferences. Source Amnesia: The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event.

7. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-7 The Fading Flashbulb Even flashbulb memories, emotionally powerful memories that seem particularly vivid, are often embellished or distorted and tend to become less accurate over time.

8. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-8 The Conditions of Confabulation Confabulation: Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened. Confabulation is most likely when: –you have thought about the event many times; –the image of the event contains many details; –the event is easy to imagine; –you focus on emotional reactions to the event rather than what actually happened.

9. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-9 Memory and the Power of Suggestion

10. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-10 Memory and the Power of Suggestion The Eyewitness on Trial Children’s Testimony Memory Under Hypnosis

11. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-11 The Eyewitness on Trial The reconstructive nature of memory makes memory vulnerable to suggestion. Eyewitness testimony is especially vulnerable to error when: –the suspects ethnicity differs from that of the witness; –when leading questions are put to witnesses; –when the witnesses are given misleading information.

12. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-12 Misleading Information Study Misleading information from other sources can alter what witnesses report. Students were shown a picture of a man with straight hair, but heard a description that mentioned curly hair. When the students were asked to reconstruct the face, a third added curly hair.

13. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-13 Children’s Testimony If asked if a visitor committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yes. –30% of 3-year olds said yes When investigators used techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yes. Social Pressure, False Allegations

14. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-14 Memory Under Hypnosis Hypnosis: A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject, who cooperates by altering his or her normal cognitive functioning. Errors and pseudomemories are so common under hypnosis that the APA opposes use of hypnosis-based testimony in courts of law; few courts allow it.

15. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-15 In Pursuit of Memory

16. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-16 In Pursuit of Memory Measuring Memory Models of Memory

17. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-17 Measuring Memory Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information. Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions.

18. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-18 Explicit Memory Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material. Recognition: The ability to identify previously encountered material.

19. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-19 Implicit Memory Priming: A method for measuring implicit memory in which a person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task. Relearning: A method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material.

20. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-20 The Three-Box Model of Memory Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions Short-term Memory: Memory’s Scratch Pad Long-term Memory: Final Destination

21. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-21 Three-Box Model of Memory

22. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-22 Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions Sensory Memory: A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information. Pattern Recognition: The identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory.

23. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-23 Short-term Memory: Memory’s Scratch Pad Short-Term Memory (STM): In the three-box model of memory, a limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use. Chunk: A meaningful unit of information; it may be composed of smaller units.

24. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-24 The Value of Chunking You have 5 seconds to memorize as much as you can Then, draw an empty chess board and reproduce the arrangement of pieces

25. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-25 Long-term Memory: Final Destination Procedural memories: –Memories for performance of actions or skills. –“Knowing how” Declarative memories: –Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; includes semantic and episodic memory. –“Knowing that”

26. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-26 Long-term Memory: Final Destination Semantic memories: –General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions. Episodic memories: –Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred.

27. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-27 Conceptual Grid

28. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-28 Serial-Position Effect The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list.

29. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-29 How We Remember

30. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-30 How We Remember Effective Encoding Rehearsal Mnemonics

31. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-31 Encoding In order to remember material well, we must encode it accurately in the first place. Some kinds of information, such as material in a college course, require effortful, as opposed to automatic, encoding.

32. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-32 Rehearsal Rehearsal of information keeps it in short-term memory and increases the chances of long-term retention.

33. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-33 Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal: Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory. Elaborative Rehearsal: Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable.

34. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-34 Mnemonics Mnemonics can also enhance retention by promoting elaborative encoding and making material meaningful. However, for ordinary memory tasks, complex memory tricks are often ineffective or even counterproductive.

35. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-35 Why We Forget

36. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-36 Why We Forget Decay Interference Cue-dependent Forgetting Psychogenic Amnesia

37. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-37 Decay Decay Theory: The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memory.

38. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-38 Forgetting Curve Herman Ebbinghaus tested his own memory for nonsense syllables. Forgetting was rapid at first and then tapered off.

39. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-39 Remembering Over Years Marigold Linton tested her own memory for personal events over a period of several years. Retention fell at a gradual but steady rate.

40. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-40 Interference Retroactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously. Proactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.

41. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-41 Cue-dependent Forgetting Cue-Dependent Forgetting: The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall. State-Dependent Memory: The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience.

42. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-42 Psychogenic Amnesia The partial or complete loss of memory (due to non-organic causes) for threatening information or traumatic experiences.

43. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-43 Autobiographical Memories Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years Memory and Narrative: The Stories of Our Lives

44. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-44 Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years Childhood Amnesia: The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life. Cognitive explanations: –Lack of sense of self –Impoverished encoding –A focus on the routine –Different ways of thinking about the world

45. Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall 8-45 Memory and Narrative: The Stories of Our Lives A person's narrative 'life story' organizes the events of his or her life and gives them meaning. Narratives change as people build up a store of episodic memories, and life stories are, to some degree, works of interpretation and imagination. The central themes of our stories can guide recall and influence our judgments of people and events.