1. Learning Theories, Models, and Methods
A GILD Tutorial
Presenter: M.E. Sanseverino
Jan 22, 2003
"Aah, there's nothing more exciting than science. You get all the fun of sitting still, being quiet, writing down numbers, paying attention...yes, science has it all."
Principal Skinner

2. Tutorial Goals 2. MODELS 1. THEORIES 3. METHODS Segue to4.
SCENARIO
Segue to
Learning Tools
5. LEARNING GOALS AND ACTIVITIES

3. 1.1 Theories: Behavioural
Primary Focus
Observable behaviour
Stimulus-response connections
Assumptions
Learning is a result of environmental forces
Subcategories
Contiguity
Respondent (Classical)
Operant (Instrumental)
Major Theorists
Thorndike
Pavlov
Watson
Skinner
Principles
Time/place pairings
Biological basis of behaviour
Consequences
Modelling

4. 1.1.1 Behavioural: Subcategories
Contiguity
Stimulus and response connected and associated in time and space
Example: The “Lucky Bathrobe”.
Respondent or Classical Conditioning
We make associations with stimuli
Example: The Pavlov Dog.
Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
Learning is the result of the application of consequences; that is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain stimuli.
Examples: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement

5. 2.1 Models: Pavlov’s Dog
From W. Huitt and J. Hummel

6. 1.2 Theories: Cognitive Primary Focus Major Theorists Assumptions
Mental behaviour
Knowledge
Intelligence
Critical Thinking
Assumptions
Learning is a result of mental operations/ processing
Subcategories
Information Processing
Hierarchical
Developmental
Major Theorists
Bloom
Piaget
Gagne
Principles
Memory is limited
Changes in complexity
Changes over time
Good thinking requires standards

7. 1.2.1 Cognitive Subcategories
Information Processing
study of the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts, environments, or ecologies .
Example: Stage Model of Information Processing
Hierarchical
The classification of educational goals and objectives
Example: Bloom’s Taxonomy
Developmental
stages in cognitive development
Example: Piaget
Critical Thinking
How we apply our cognitive processes to evaluating arguments (propositions) and making decisions
Examples: Thinking to a standard. Critical Thinking Model

8. 2.2.1 Models: Information Processing
From Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).

9. 2.2.2 Models: Bloom’s Taxonomy
From W. Huitt and J. Hummel

10. 2.2.3 Models: Thinking to a Standard
CLARITY: Could you elaborate further on that point?
ACCURACY: Is that really true?
PRECISION: Could you give more details?
DEPTH: How does the answer address the complexities in the question?
RELEVANCE: How is that connected to the question?
BREADTH: Do we need to consider another point of view?
LOGIC: Does this really make sense?
From Linda Elder and Richard Paul

11. 2.2.4 Models: Critical Thinking Model
From W. Huitt and J. Hummel

12. 2.2.5 Piaget’s Model of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy).
Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood) Use of symbols, language use matures, memory and imagination are developed, thinking is nonlogical, nonreversable.
Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). Intelligence demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.
Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). Intelligence demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts.
From W. Huitt and J. Hummel

13. 1.3 Theories: Humanistic Primary Focus Major Theorists Assumptions
Affect/Values
Self-Concept/Self-Esteem
Needs
Assumptions
Learning is a result of affect/emotion and goal-orientation
Subcategories
Affect
Motivation/Needs
Self-concept
Self-esteem
Major Theorists
Rogers
Maslow
N. V. Peale
Principles
Individual uniqueness
Self-determination
Dreams and goals are vital for success

14. 1.3.1 Humanistic Subcategories
Affect
The affective/emotional system colours, embellishes, diminishes or otherwise modifies information processed by people.
Example: The Affective Domain
Self-Concept
Ideal Self
Perceived
Self
Real Self
Motivation/Needs
What needs motivate us to act?
Example: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Esteem
Basic faith in oneself as being growth-directed and positively oriented.
Individuals cannot progress because they do not have faith in their ability to solve problems or to accurately experience the here-and-now.

15. 2.3.1 Models: The Affective Domain
Adapted from: Krathwohl, D., Bloom, B., & Masia, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay.

16. 2.3.2 Models: Maslow’s Hierarchy
Source: William G. Huitt,

17. 1.4 Theories: Social Cognition
Primary Focus
Modelling
Vicarious Learning
Attitudes
Goals
Assumptions
Learning is a result of influences of social environment on thinking.
Subcategories
Observational (Social)
Self-efficacy
Goal-setting
Self-regulation
Major Theorists
Bandura
Vygotsky
Sears
Principles
Reciprocal determinism
Individual responsibility

18. 1.4.1 Social Cognition Subcategories
Observational (Social)
Observational learning - vicarious learning
Imitating/modelling behaviour of those they admire
Self-efficacy
Belief in one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations
Self-Regulation and Goal-setting
setting goals for upgrading knowledge;
deliberating about strategies to select those that balance progress toward goals against unwanted costs;
monitoring the accumulating effects of such engagement.
Example: Self-regulating model

19. 2.4.1 Models: Self-Regulation
LEARNER
Plan to achieve goal
Tasks
+ confidence
- confidence
Problem
Quit
What must I
do to achieve
goal
Plan is
modified
Goal is changed
GOAL
From Carver and Scheier (1990)

20. 3. Methods: Putting theories and models together
Adapted from Romiszowski, 1984

21. 3.1 Methods: How do you think?
The Block Problem:
Visualisation
Draw a picture
Mathematically
How did you do it?
Were you successful on the first or second attempt?
Did you use more than one strategy? (ie. Visualise and deduce that blocks have eight corners)

22. 3.1 Methods: How do you think?
The Sticks Problem:
Visualising
Drawing
Manipulating Objects
If you manipulate objects:
Be aware of how it feels to do solve the problem this way.
Are you carrying on a verbal dialogue (verbalizing)? .

23. 3.1 Methods: How do you think?
The Who Did It problem:
In this problem only one statement is true. Determine from the information given who did it?
A said, "B did it."
B said, "D did it."
C said, "I did not do it."
D said, "B lied when he said I did it."
Verbal/Logical solution
Easy to confuse the information statement with the problem statement: Many learners try to figure out which statement is a true, rather than which person is guilty.

24. 3.1 Methods: How do you think?
The Who Did It problem continued:
If you noticed that since only one statement is true and C says that he didn't do it, one need only discover that one of A, B, or D is telling the truth to establish that C is guilty (if A, B, or D is true, C is false; thus C did it). Since B and D contradict each other, only one of them can be true. Since we've found one true statement (it doesn't matter whether it's B or D), we can deduce that C did it. (A more efficient, but often overlooked strategy).
Begin by assuming A is guilty, determine if it is the case that only one statement is true, then assume B is guilty, and so on until you find that only one statement is true. (This method is most common for those who do solve the problem, and will result in a correct answer)

25. 3.2 Methods: Determining Your Learning Styles
Principles of Thinking Styles
ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS
How can active learners help themselves?
How can reflective learners help themselves?
SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS
How can sensing learners help themselves?
How can intuitive learners help themselves?
VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS
How can visual learners help themselves?
How can verbal learners help themselves?
SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS
How can sequential learners help themselves?
How can global learners help themselves?

26. 3.2.1 Principals of Thinking Styles
Styles can vary across the life span.
Styles are measurable.
Styles are teachable.
Styles valued at one time may not be valued at another.
Styles valued in one place may not be valued in another.
Styles, on average, are not good or bad -- it's a question of fit.
We confuse stylistic fit with levels of ability.
People differ in there stylistic flexibility.
Styles are preferences in the use of abilities, not abilities themselves.
A match between styles and abilities creates synergy that is more than the sum of its parts.
Life choices need to fit styles as well as abilities.
People have profiles (or patterns) of styles, not just a single style.
Styles are variable across tasks and situations.
People differ in the strength of their preferences.
Styles are socialised.

27. 4.0 Scenario GOALS WHY ACTIVITY Explain/understand why repetition is
needed.
To put the problem in
some context. Students
comprehend problem.
Students write a program without a repetition structure. KNOWLEDGE
Demo/explain
different repetition
structures.
To put structures
in a more defined
context.
Give a problem. Ask students to code it in all repetition types. APPLICATION
Discuss why and when
one structure might be
more appropriate
than another.
To get the students
thinking of these
structures in terms of
problem solving.
Give a problem. Ask students to select structure
and justify choice. EVALUATION
Have students learn
debugging strategies
using repetition as a
catalyst.
To develop debugging
/logical problem
solving strategies.
Have an in-class find and fix competition. Logical errors, syntax, and run-time. ANALYSIS

28. Bibliography
Educational Psychology Interactive < Valdosta State University, Georgia, USA. Recommended for GILD members
Looking at Carl Rogers (Humanistic Theory) <
Learning to Learn < Recommended for GILD members
The Next Step Teacher Education <
Theory into Practice: TIP <
Resources in Science and Engineering Education < Recommended for GILD members

29. Bibliography cont.
How People Learn, Expanded Edition John Bransford et al Full book online at < Recommended for GILD members -- if you can only fit in one item on learning, make it this book. It blends theory and practice into a very readable, useable resource.
Funderstanding: educational products for kids. <
Great Expectations: Leveraging America's Investment in Educational Technology <
Integrating Technology in Learning and Teaching. Pat Maier and Adam Warren. Kogan Page Limited, London, UK