1. ERSC 1P92Extreme Earth Final Exam: Wednesday, December 3, 2008 1400h – 1600h WCIBDS - Ian D. Beddis Gym 110 multiple choice or “figure” questions to be answered on SCANTRON sheets Questions will be based on material covered over the entire course.

2. The nature of scientific ideas Speculation Hypothesis Theory Law Geology 001: the basics Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock Fossils

3. The geologic cycle

4. A Brief History of Geology HerodotosAristotleTheophrastusSt. Thomas Aquinas Leonardo da VinciJames Ussher Neptunism versus Plutonism Abraham Werner James Hutton and the Principle of Uniformitarianism Georges CuvierCharles Lyle Catastrophism in the 20 th Century

5. The Origin of the Solar System Nebular Hypothesis The Planets of the Solar System The early history of the Earth How did the Moon form?

6. Comets, Asteroids and Meteoroids Asteroids (rocky bodies) Meteoroid Meteor Meteorite Bolide Comets: dust and ice. The Risk of Space Objects to Humans K/T boundary impact Tunguska Event Comet SL-9 impact on Jupiter

7. What happens when a meteoroid or asteroid reaches the Earth? Heat wave Pressure wave Impact crater formation What is the frequency of impacts with Earth? Near Earth Objects

8. Evaluating the risk of asteroid impacts. Impact craters on Earth How they form. Crater anatomy. Major craters on Earth.

9. Plate Tectonics defined. What did Plate Tectonics replace? Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift. Evidence Theory Outcome Contracting Earth Theory

10. Geomagnetism Earth’s Magnetic Field Geodynamo magnetic declination secular variation Orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field.

11. Magnetization of rocks Remnant magnetic signature (RMS) Magnetic Anomalies Apparent Polar Wandering

12. Apparent polar wandering paths pointed to continental drift.

13. Sea Floor Stripes and Sea floor Spreading Polar reversals

14. Plate Tectonics Structure of the Earth USGS

15. Plate Boundaries Transform Margins – Horizontal slip Oceanic Trench – Convergence Oceanic Ridge – Divergence

16. But what drives plate tectonics?

17. Anatomy of an Earthquake

18. Earthquakes What is an Earthquake? Shockwaves generated by energy released as adjacent rock bodies suddenly move.

19. Types of Shockwaves L-waves (surface waves) S-waves (secondary or shear waves) P-waves (primary waves)

20. Intensity Magnitude Damage due to earthquakes Surface vibration Landslides Liquefaction Tsunamis

21. Distribution of Earthquakes 1.Along oceanic trenches. 2.In regions of continental collision. 4. Within plates, well away from plate margins. 3. Along oceanic ridges and transform faults.

22. Predicting earthquakes Long term prediction Recurrence rates Seismic Gaps Short term prediction precursor events Seismic wave velocitiesGround level deformation Groundwater ChemistryMicroearthquake swarms Direct SensorsAnimal warnings

23. The Great Canadian Earthquake??? (Evidence for a southern BC megaquake)

24. Early evolution of the Earth and its atmosphere. Formation of the Earth’s core and crust. The Earth’s atmosphere and the evolution of early life.

25. Climate versus Weather Weather: the condition of the atmosphere at a particular point in space and time. Climate: the average weather for a defined region. Climatic Radiative Balance and Radiative Forcing

26. Climate Change Over Geologic Time Climatic fluctuation over the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Conditions in the Cretaceous Much warmer as CO 2 levels were elevated due to an increase in volcanic activity. 4 glacial periods Global warming and glaciers

27. Mild winters, abundant snow and cool summers. Cold, dry winters, hot summers. Glaciers will not develop. Glaciers develop. Milankovich Cycles

28. Carboniferous/Permian Cooling due to CO 2 removal by extensive weathering.

29. Snowball Earth That 600-700 million years ago the Earth was effectively covered by glacial ice, including 500 to 1500 m thick sea ice cover.

30. Volcano: A mound of material that is extruded to the Earth’s surface from a vent that is connected to a magma chamber via a feeder conduit. SiO 2 content controls viscosity of the magma which in turn controls the amount of gas in the magma and its explosivity. Types of volcanic deposits Lava: very fluid, low viscosity magma at the Earth’s surface.

31. Pahoehoe Aa Pillows

32. Tephra: Ash, lapilli, blocks and bombs. Pyroclastic material Tuff Ash fall Lahar

33. Nuée Ardente

34. Shield volcanoes: dominated by lava flows. Cinder cones: Isolated cones dominated by pyroclastics. Stratovolcanoes: mixture of lavas and pyroclastics.

36. Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions Short-term prediction Surface tilting: recognition of changes in the land surface due to building pressure in the conduit. Gas emissions: rates of emission and type of gas changes in some volcanoes. Earthquakes: generated as the magma moves up the feeder conduit to the vent. Identify the distribution, frequency, style of eruption, etc. Determine local risks to specific hazards. Long-term prediction

37. The impact of volcanic eruptions Global Climate Change

38. Volcanic Explosivity Index Mt. Pelée (1902) Major Historic Eruptions Tambora (1815) Krakatoa (1883) Krakatoa (535 AD)? Super Volcanoes (>1,000 km 3 of ejecta) Toba Yellowstone Volcanoes in Space