1. Junior/ Senior Elective 2014-2015
Grammar Lessons
Junior/ Senior Elective

2. Chapter 4
Parts of speech

3. Lesson 4.1 Nouns
Nouns—words that name persons, places, things, or ideas
Abstract nouns—name ideas and things you cannot touch
Concrete nouns—name things you can touch, taste, see, hear, or smell.
Proper nouns—name particular persons, places, things, or ideas and need capitalization.
Common nouns—name general people, places, and things and don’t need capitalization.
Collective nouns—name a group of people, animals, or things.
Compound nouns—consist of two or more words.
Run together: cookbook
Hyphenated: ninety-one
Two separate words: House of Representatives

4. Lesson 4.2 Pronouns Pronouns—words that take the place of a noun
Antecedent—the word or group of words a pronoun replaces
Types of Pronouns:
Personal: refer to specific people or animals
Indefinite: express and amount or refer to a unspecified person or thing
Demonstrative: point to specific people or things
Interrogative: begin a question
Reflexive: end in –self or –selves and refer to an earlier noun or pronoun
Intensive: add emphasis

5. Lesson 4.2 Pronoun Lists Personal Possessive Indefinite
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Reflexive and Intensive
I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it they, them
my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, their, theirs
all, any, anyone, both, either, everyone, few, most, nobody,
no one, several, somebody, another, anybody, each, everybody, many, neither, non, one, some, someone
That, this, these, those
Who? What? Whose? Whom? What?
Myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, itself, themselves

6. Lesson 4.3 Verbs
Verbs—words that express an action or a state of being.
Some actions are seen (run), some are not (imagine).
Verbs change form to indicate time. (work, works, was working)
Linking verbs—join the subject of a sentence with a word or words that identify or describe it.
Verb phrase—contains a main verb and a helping verb
ex. should have been

7. Lesson 4.4 Adjectives
Adjectives—modifiers that give information about the nouns and pronouns they modify.
They answer what kind, how many, how much, or which one.
Types of Adjectives
Definite and indefinite articles: point to particular nouns or any one member of a group.
Proper: begin with capital letters.
ex. Persian rug, African tourists
Predicate adjectives: follow a linking verb
Nouns modifying other nouns work like adjectives
ex. desk drawer opera house

8. Lesson 4.5 Adverbs
Adverbs modify—or tell more about—verbs, adjective, and other adverbs
Many come before or after the verbs they modify.
Many adverbs end with the suffix –ly.
Intensifier are adverbs that answer the question to what extent?

9. Lesson 4.5 Adverb Lists
Adverbs that DON’T end in -ly
Intensifiers
Almost, already, also, always, fast, here just, late, more, much, never, not, now, seldom, soon, still, then, there, today, tomorrow, well, yesterday, yet
Less, least, more, most, nearly, only, quite, exceptionally, extraordinarily, rather, really, so, somewhat, too, truly, very

10. Lesson 4.6 Combing Sentences: Inserting Single-Word Modifiers
One short sentence after another can be very boring. Combine short, choppy sentences by inserting the key word or words in one sentence into another sentence.
You can change the form of a word or the order of the modifiers to help you combine sentences.
Steps for Combining Sentences
Identify the sentence that gives the central information.
In other sentences, find key words and phrases that you can insert into the sentence you identified in Step 1.
Change key words as needed to create a smoothly flowing sentence.
Read the combined sentence to see if it sounds natural.

11. Lesson 4.6 Examples
Original: Yellowstone Park has geysers and hot springs. The geysers erupt regularly. The hot springs bubble and boil. Combined: Yellowstone Park has regularly erupting geysers and bubbling, boiling hot springs.

12. Lesson 4.7 Prepositions
Prepositions connect another word in a sentence to a noun or pronoun to form a prepositional phrase.
If a word is an adverb and a preposition, look for a prepositional phrase to make the distinction.
Commonly Used Prepositions
Compound Prepositions
about, as, below, during, from, near, on, since, until, with, outside, inside, through, at, above, by, into, of, our, to , up, along, before, over, under, like, off, across, against, around
according to, due to, in addition to, in spite of, apart from

13. Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections
Conjunctions join words or groups of words.
Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups of words that are equal in importance.
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs.
The words or phrases joined by a pair of correlative conjunctions should be parallel.
Subordinating conjunctions connect adverb clauses to main clauses.
Interjections express mild or strong emotion. Set them off with a comma or an exclamation point.

14. Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections
Coordination Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
Common Interjections
For
And
Nor
But Or
Yet So
both…and
either…or
just as… so (too)
neither…nor
not only…but also
whether…or
Ah, aha, alas, bravo,,, hey, oh no, oops, ouch, ugh, well, wow

15. Lesson 4.9 Determining a Word’s Part of Speech
Many words can function as more than one part of speech.
How a word is used in a sentence determines its part of speech.

16. Chapter 5
Parts of a sentence

17. Lesson 5.1 Using Complete Sentences
Every sentence starts with a capital letter and finishes with an end mark of punctuation.
sentence— a grammatically complete group of words that expresses a thought.
sentence fragment —a group of words that is not grammatically complete.
4 Sentence Purposes:
Make a statement: Declarative
Make a command or request: Imperative
Ask a question: Interrogative
Express strong feeling: Exclamatory

18. Lesson 5.2 Subject and Predicate
Subject—the part of a sentence that names the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about
Predicate—the part of the sentence that tells what the subject does, what it is or what happens to it.
Simple subject—the key word or words in the subject
Simple predicate—the verb or verb phrase that tells something about the subject.
not or n’t in a contraction is never part of a verb phrase
The verb doesn’t always come after the subject. In a question, the verb often comes first.

19. Lesson 5.3 Correcting Sentence Fragments
Strategies for correcting sentence fragments:
Attach it. Join the fragment to a complete sentence before or after it.
Add some words. Add the words needed to make the group of words grammatically complete.
Drop some words. Drop the subordinating conjunction that creates a fragment.
Ex. After, as if, because, since, that, when, which

20. Lesson 5.4 Combining Sentences: Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs
Compound subjects can solve the problem of repetition, which wastes space and wears out your reader.
A sentence with a compound subject has two or more subjects sharing the same verb.
Use a conjunction to join the separate subjects.
A sentence with a compound verb has two or more verbs sharing the same subject.
Use a conjunction to join the separate verbs.

21. Lesson 5.5 Finding the Subject
Sometimes, less common sentence constructions or word order see to bury or camouflage the subject.
Finding the subject:
Find the verb or verb phrase.
Ask Who or What before the verb.
The girl in the red shirt won the match.
Verb=won; Who won? =girl
Inverted sentences– the verb comes before the subject.
There and here are never subjects.
The subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
In an imperative sentence, the subject is always you.
The word you is called the understood subject.
Even in direct address—which includes the name of the person being spoken to—the subject is still you.
Caitlin, [you] call the doctor and ask for her advice.

22. Lesson 5.6 Compound Sentences
A compound sentence combines two or more simple sentences into a single sentence.
In a compound sentence, each simple sentence has at least one subject and one verb.
Strategies to make compound sentences:
Use a comma and a conjunction
Use a semicolon
Use a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb
List of Conjunctive Adverbs:
accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, thus

23. Lesson 5.7 Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is made up of two or more sentences that are incorrectly run together as a single sentence.
Strategies to Correct Run-ons:
Separate them with end punctuation and a capital letter.
Use a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, yet, so preceded by a comma.
Try a semicolon to separate the two sentences.
Add a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and comma.
Create a clause. Turn one of the sentences into a subordinate clause.

24. Lesson 5.7 Run-on Sentences
Time
Place
Cause
Comparison
Condition
Purpose
after,
as long as, as soon as, before, since, until, when, while
where, wherever
because, since,
as,
as much as, than, whereas
although,
as long as,
as if, even though, provided that, though unless, while
so that, that,
in order that

25. Lesson 5.8 Direct and Indirect Objects
a noun or pronoun that receives the action of an action verb.
Finding Direct Objects:
Find the action verb.
Ask the question whom or what after the action verb.
indirect object-
a noun or pronoun that follows comes before the direct object.
Finding Indirect Objects:
Find the direct object.
Ask the question to whom, for whom, to what or for what after the action verb.

26. Lesson 5.9 Predicate Nominatives and Predicate Adjectives
COPY PAGE 121
NO NOTES

27. Chapter 6
Phrases

28. Lesson 6.1 Prepositional Phrases
Begin with a preposition and end with an object
Add information to a sentence by modifying another word in the sentence
Have 2 forms: adjectival and adverbial
Adjective Phrase
modifies a noun or pronoun
answers the questions which one or what kind
Adverb Phrase
modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
answers the questions how or to what extent

29. Lesson 6.2 Appositives and Appositive Phrases
appositive-a noun or pronoun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun that precedes it
appositive phrase- a phrase made up of an appositive and all of its modifiers
Punctuating appositives:
if the phrase is essential (necessary to the meaning of the sentence), do NOT use commas
If the phrase if nonessential, use a comma before it and after it

30. Lesson 6.3 Participles and Participial Phrases
Verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of speech. f
Participle- a type of verbal; a verb that acts as an adjective, modifying a noun or a pronoun
Types of Participles:
Present: always have an –ing ending
Past: often end in –d or –ed
Participial phrases:
Made up of a participle and all of its modifiers
May contain objects, modifiers, and prepositional phrases
The whole phrase acts as an adjective

31. Lesson 6.4 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of speech.
gerund- a type of verbal; a verb from that ends in –ing and acts as a noun.
Gerund phrases:
made up of a gerund and all of its modifiers and complements
modifiers include adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases
the entire phrase functions as a noun.

32. Lesson 6.5 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of speech.
infinitive- type of verbal; a verb form that is almost always preceded by the word to and acts as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Infinitive phrases:
made up of an infinitive and all of its modifiers and complements
may contain prepositional phrases
Sometimes have the word to implied

33. Lesson 6.6 Combining Sentences: Inserting Phrases
Ways to combine sentences:
Creating compound sentences
Creating compound subjects
Creating compound verbs
Inserting phrases
Sometimes your need to slightly change the phrase you move.
Sometimes you just move it as is.
There is almost always more than one possibility.

34. Chapter 7
Clauses

35. Lesson 7.1 Independent and Subordinate Clauses
Independent (main) clause- expresses a complete thought with a subject and a verb.
Compound sentence- sentence made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction.
Subordinate (dependent) clause- has a subject and a verb but DOES NOT express a complete thought
Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they are sentence fragments.

36. Lesson 7.2 Subordinate Clauses: Adjective Clauses
Adjective clause—a subordinate clause that:
functions as an adjective
modifies a noun or pronoun
Follows the word it modifies
Adjective clauses are often introduced by:
relative pronouns: that, which, whom, those, who, whose)
Relative adverbs: when, where
Adj. clauses sometimes omit the relative pronouns and adverbs. These are called elliptical.
The adj. clause can be essential or nonessential. Nonessentials are set off by commas.

37. Lesson 7.3 Subordinate Clauses: Adverb Clauses
Adverb clause—a subordinate clause that functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb
They tell how, how much, when, where, why, to what extend, or under what circumstances.
They are set off by a comma if they come at the beginning of the sentence.
Often introduced by subordinating conjunctions:
After, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as , as soon as, as though, because, before, even though, except that, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which, while

38. Lesson 7.4 Combining Sentences: Using Subordinate Clauses
Combining with Adjective Clauses
Begin that adjective clause with who, which, that, those, whom, whose, when, or where.
Use commas if the clause is nonessential.
Combining with Adverb Clauses
Being the adverb clause with a subordinating conjunction.
Time
Place
Cause
Comparison
Condition
Purpose
After, before, as long as,
as soon as, since, until, when, while
Where, wherever
Because, since
As,
as much as, than, whereas
Although,
as long as,
even though, as if, though provided that, unless, while
So that, that, in order that

39. Lesson 7.5 Noun Clauses
Noun clause—a subordinate clause that functions as a noun.
It can be :
a subject
a predicate nominative,
a direct object,
an indirect object, or
an object of a preposition.
It can come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
Words that introduce noun clauses:
How, if, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, why

40. Lesson 7.6 Four Types of Sentence Structures
Four Ways to Build a Sentence
Simple Sentence
Has one independent clause and one subordinate clauses.
Compound Sentence
Has two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
Complex Sentence
Has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.
Compound-Complex Sentence
Has two or more independent clauses and at least on subordinate clause.
Different sentence structures add variety to your writing.

41. Lesson 7.7 Effective Sentences: Parallel Structure
Parallel sentences uses the same part of speech or grammatical structure to convey equal or related ideas.
Sentence parts linked by coordination conjunctions.
Time of day, amount of light, and distance from the subject are all factors in taking photographs.
Noun followed by prepositional phrase
Sentence parts linked by correlative conjunctions
He is responsible not only for leading us but also for feeding us.
a correlative conjunction followed by a prepositional phrase
Sentence parts that compare or contrast
I was more interested in what the exhibit showed than in what Martha said.
Noun clauses both precede and follow than

42. Lesson 7.8 Effective Paragraphs: Varying Sentences
Three Ways to Vary Sentences
Vary beginnings (use different phrases and clauses)
Use a variety of sentence structures
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-complex
Vary the lengths of your sentences.
Place short ones between long ones.
Use short sentences for emphasis.