1. Word Structure
Part 1

2. The Structure of Words: Morphology
Fundamental concepts in how words are composed out of smaller parts
The nature of these parts
The nature of the rules that combine these parts into larger units
What it might mean to be a word

3. Today Morphemes Types of Morphemes
Putting Morphemes together into larger structures
Words with internal structure
Interesting properties of compounds

4. I. Morphemes
Remember that in phonology the basic distinctive units of sound are phonemes
In morphology, the basic unit is the morpheme
Basic definition: A morpheme is a minimal unit of sound and meaning
(this can be modified in various ways; see below)

5. Some Examples
Many words can be divided into smaller parts, where the parts also occur in other words:
dogs walking blackens player-hater
dog-s walk-ing black-en-s play-er hat-er
Compare: cat-s; runn-ing; dark-en-s; eat-er
(note: in some cases there are spelling changes when we add morphemes; ignore this)

6. Parts, cont. The smaller parts occur consistently with many words:
-s: forms the plural consistently
-ing: forms a noun from a verb
-en: forms a verb meaning ‘become ADJ’ from an adjective ADJ
-er: forms an agentive nominal from a verb, a person or thing who does that activity

7. Consistent Sound/Meaning
Notice that this is not the only way we can divide up words into smaller parts; consider
Tank, plank, flank, drank, rank, etc.
In these words, we could easily identify a component -ank
However, this is not a morpheme
There is no consistent meaning with this -ank
The “leftover” pieces t-, pl-, fl-, dr-, r- are not morphemes either

8. Connections between Sound and Meaning
Remember that a phoneme sometimes has more than one sound form, while being the same abstract unit: /p/ with [p] and [ph]
A related thing happens with morphemes as well
In order to see this, we have to look at slightly more complex cases

9. Morphemes and Allomorphs
We will say in some cases that a morpheme has more than one allomorph
This happens when the same meaning unit like [past] for past tense or [pl] for plural has more than one sound form
Past: one feature [past]
kick / kick-ed
leave / lef-t
hit / hit-Ø
The last example shows a case in which the phonological form of the morpheme past is zero, i.e. it is not pronounced

10. Allomorphy, cont.
In the case of phonology, we said that the different allophones of a phoneme are part of the same phoneme, but are found in particular contexts
The same is true of the different allomorphs of a morpheme
Which allomorph of a morpheme is found depends on its context; in this case, what it is attached to:
Example: consider [pl] for English plural. It normally has the pronunciation –s (i.e. /z/), but
moose / moose- Ø
ox / ox-en
box/*box-en/box-es
So, the special allomorphs depend on the noun

11. An Additional Point: Regular and Irregular
In the examples above, the different allomorphs have a distinct status. One of them is regular.
This is the default form that appears when speakers are using e.g. new words (one blork, two blorks)
For other allomorphs, speakers simply have to memorize the fact that the allomorph is what it is
Example: It cannot be predicted from other facts that the plural of ox is ox-en
Demonstration: The regular plural is /z/; consider one box, two box-es.
Default cases like the /z/ plural are called regular. Allomorphs that have to be memorized are called irregular.
Irregular allomorphs block regular allomorphs from occurring (ox-en, not *ox-es or *ox-en-s).

12. Two types
There are in fact two types of allomorphy. Think back to phonology…
The Plural morpheme in English has different sound-forms: dog-s/cat-s/church-es
These are predictable, based on the phonological context
In the case of Past Tense allomorphy, it is not predictable from the phonology which affix appears
We can find verbs with the same (or similar) sound form, but with different allomorphs: break/broke, not stake/*stoke
If you think about this case for a while, though, you will notice some patterns; more on this later

13. II. Morpheme Types
We’ll now set out some further distinctions among morpheme types
Our working definition of morpheme was ‘minimal unit of sound and meaning’
A further division among morphemes involves whether they can occur on their own or not:
No: -s in dog-s; -ed in kick-ed; cran- in cran-berry
Yes: dog, kick, berry

14. Some Definitions
Bound Morphemes: Those that cannot appear on their own
Free Morphemes: Those that can appear on their own
In a complex word:
The root or stem is the basic or core morpheme
The things added to this are the affixes
Example: in dark-en the root or stem is dark, while the affix– in this case a suffix– is -en

15. Further points
In some cases, works will use root and stem in slightly different ways
Affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes depending on whether they occur before or after the thing they attach to. Infixes-- middle of a word (e.g. fan-f*ing-tastic)
For the most part, prefixes and suffixes are always bound, except for isolated instances

16. Content and Function Words
Another distinction:
Content Morphemes: morphemes that have a referential function that is independent of grammatical structure; e.g. dog, kick, etc.
Sometimes these are called “open-class” because speakers can add to this class at will
Function morphemes: morphemes that are bits of syntactic structure– e.g. prepositions, or morphemes that express grammatical notions like [past] for past tense.
Sometimes called “closed-class” because speakers cannot add to this class

17. Cross-Classification
The bound/free and content/function distinctions are not the same. Some examples:
Content Function
Bound cran- -ed
Free dog the

18. Aside: Non-Affixal Morphology
In the cases above, we have seen many affixes associated with some morphological function
In other cases, there are additional changes; e.g., changes to the stem vowel:
sing/sang
goose/geese
Examples of this type are not obviously affixal, as there is no (overt) added piece (prefix or suffix). Rather, the phonology of the stem/root has changed

19. Some examples Stem changing: Present Past Participle sing sang sung
begin began begun
sit sat sat
come came come

20. Another pattern
While in many cases the stem change does not co-occur with an affix, in some cases it does:
Examples:
break broke brok-en
tell tol-d tol-d
freeze froze froz-en

21. Use of stem changing patterns
In some languages, stem-changing is much more important than it is in e.g. English
In Semitic languages, extensive use is made of different templatic patterns, that is, abstract patterns of consonants and vowels:
Arabic noun plurals:
kitaab ‘book’; kutub ‘books’
nafs ‘soul’; nufus ‘souls’

22. III. Internal structure of words
Words have an internal structure that requires analysis into constituents (much like syntactic structure does)
For example:
Unusable contains three pieces: un-, use, -able
Question: If we are thinking about the procedures for building words, is the order
derive use-able, then add un-; or
derive un-use, then add -able

23. Word Structure Possibilities: Structure 1 Structure 2
un use able un use able

24. Word Structure, Cont. Consider: Break/break-able; kick/kick-able
With –able, we create adjectives meaning ‘capable of being V-ed’, from verbs V
Break/break-able; kick/kick-able
There is no verb un-use
This is an argument that Structure 1 is correct:
[un [use able]]
This analysis fits well with what the word means as well: not capable of being used. Structure two would mean some thing like ‘capable of not being used’

25. Another example
Consider another word (from the first class…): unlockable. Focus on un-
Note that in addition to applying to adjectives (clear/unclear) to give a “contrary” meaning, un- applies to some verbs to give a kind of “undoing” or reversing meaning:
do, undo
zip, unzip
tie, untie
Note now that unlockable has two meanings

26. The Unlockable example
Two meanings:
Not capable of being locked
Capable of being unlocked
These meanings correspond to distinct structures:
1) 2)
un lock able un lock able

27. Unlockable, cont.
The second structure is one in which –able applies to the verb unlock
This verb is itself created from un- and lock
The meaning goes with this: ‘capable of being unlocked’
In structure 1, there is no verb unlock
So the meaning is ‘not capable of being locked’

28. Some General Points
The system for analyzing words applies in many cases that are created on the fly
Complex words and their meanings are not simply stored; rather, the parts are assembled to create complex meanings
Another example of the same principle applies in the process of compounding

29. Introduction to Compounding
A compound is a complex word that is formed out of a combination of stems (as opposed to stem + affix)
These function in a certain sense as ‘one word’, and have distinctive phonological patterns
Examples:
olive oil
shop talk
shoe polish
truck driver
Note that the different elements in these compounds relate to each other in different ways...

30. Internal structure
Like with other complex words, the internal structure of compounds is crucial
There are cases of ambiguities like that with unlockable
Example: obscure document shredder
Person who shreds obscure documents
[[obscure document] shredder]
Obscure person who shreds documents
[obscure [document shredder]]

31. Compounding, cont. judge trial judge murder trial judge
An interesting property of compounds is that although they are ‘words’, they form a productive system, without limits (as far as grammar is concerned, not memory).
Note also that compounds have special accentual (stress) properties:
judge
trial judge
murder trial judge
murder trial judge reporter
murder trial judge reporter killer
murder trial judge reporter killer catcher
murder trial judge reporter killer catcher biographer
murder trial judge reporter killer catcher biographer pencil set …