1. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education CanadaCopyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Thinking and Intelligence Chapter 9

2. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-2Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-2Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada-2 Chapter Outline Thought: Using What We KnowThought: Using What We Know Reasoning RationallyReasoning Rationally Barriers to Reasoning RationallyBarriers to Reasoning Rationally Measuring Intelligence: The Psychometric ApproachMeasuring Intelligence: The Psychometric Approach Dissecting Intelligence: The Cognitive ApproachDissecting Intelligence: The Cognitive Approach Animal MindsAnimal Minds

3. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-3 Thought: Elements of Cognition ConceptsConcepts –A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties –Basic concepts: concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire than those having few or many instances –Prototype: an especially representative example of a concept

4. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-4 The Elements of Cognition PropositionProposition –A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea Cognitive schemasCognitive schemas –Integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world Mental imagesMental images –Mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents (occur in most sensory modalities)

5. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-5 How Conscious is Thought? Subconscious processesSubconscious processes –Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary (e.g., driving a car) Nonconscious processesNonconscious processes –Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness (e.g., relying on insight or intuition)

6. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-6 Types of Nonconscious Processes Implicit learningImplicit learning –Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have learned MindlessnessMindlessness –Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context

7. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-7 Reasoning Rationally ReasoningReasoning –Drawing conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions –Formal reasoning problems: problems solved using established methods (algorithms & logic); usually a single correct solution –Informal reasoning problems: problems in which many approaches, viewpoints, or possible solutions may compete; no clear correct solution

8. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-8 Formal Reasoning Deductive Reasoning:Deductive Reasoning: –When a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises –If premises true, conclusion must be true Inductive Reasoning:Inductive Reasoning: –When the premises provide support for a conclusion, but it’s still possible for conclusion to be false

9. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-9 Formal Reasoning

10. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-10 Informal Reasoning HeuristicHeuristic –Rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem-solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution Dialectical reasoningDialectical reasoning –Process in which opposing facts are weighed & compared in order to determine the best solution or resolve differences

11. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-11 Reflective Judgment Development of reflective judgment:Development of reflective judgment: –Pre-reflective stages: assumption that correct answers can be obtained through the senses or from the authorities –Quasi-reflective stages: recognize limits to absolute certainty, realize judgments should be supported by reasons, yet pay attention to evidence that confirms beliefs –Reflective stages: consider evidence from a variety of sources and reason dialectically

12. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-12 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 1.Exaggerating the Improbable –Common bias to exaggerate the probability of rare events (e.g., getting in a plane crash) –Strongly influenced by the affect and availability heuristics when making judgments Affect heuristic: tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectivelyAffect heuristic: tendency to consult one’s emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively Availability heuristic: tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instancesAvailability heuristic: tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances

13. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-13 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 2.Avoiding Loss –We respond more cautiously when choices are framed in terms of the risk of losing something than if same choice framed in terms of gain –Goal to minimize losses

14. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-14 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 3.The Fairness Bias –A sense of fairness often takes precedence over rational self-interest when people make economic choices 4.The Hindsight Bias –The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the “I knew it all along” phenomenon

15. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-15 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 5.The Confirmation Bias –The tendency to look for or pay attention to only information that confirms one’s own belief 6.Mental Sets –A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems

16. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-16 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally Nine Dot Problem:Nine Dot Problem: Connect all 9 dots; use only 4 lines; do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawingConnect all 9 dots; use only 4 lines; do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing Test this rule:Test this rule: If a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other side.If a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other side. Which 2 cards to turn over?Which 2 cards to turn over?

17. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-17 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 7.The Need for Cognitive Consistency –Cognitive dissonance = a state of tension the occurs when a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviour

18. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-18 Cognitive Dissonance Three conditions where you are most likely to try to reduce dissonance:Three conditions where you are most likely to try to reduce dissonance: 1.When you need to justify a choice or decision that you freely made (e.g., post- decision dissonance) 2.When you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourself 3.When you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choice (justification of effort)

19. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-19 Measuring Intelligence IntelligenceIntelligence –An inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment –Measured using either psychometric or cognitive approaches to understanding

20. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-20 The Psychometric Approach Psychometric approach to intelligencePsychometric approach to intelligence –Measurement of mental abilities, traits & processes –Factor analysis: statistical method for analyzing intercorrelations among measures or test scores –g factor: a general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents

21. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-21 IQ Tests Originally developed to identify children that were slow learners for remedial purposesOriginally developed to identify children that were slow learners for remedial purposes –Concept of mental age (MA): level of intellectual development relative to that of other children –Binet & Simon examined this by measuring memory, vocabulary, & perceptual discrimination –Scoring system devised to yield an intelligence quotient (IQ): originally MA/CA x 100; now derived from norms provided from standardized intelligence tests

22. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-22 IQ Tests IQ Tests have been revised substantially since original versions (both in testing procedures & methods of calculation)IQ Tests have been revised substantially since original versions (both in testing procedures & methods of calculation) –Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test –Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) –Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

23. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-23 IQ Tests

24. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-24 IQ Scores IQ scores are distributed “normally”IQ scores are distributed “normally” –Bell-shaped curve Very high and low scores are rareVery high and low scores are rare 68% of people have IQ between 85-11568% of people have IQ between 85-115 –99.7% between 55-145

25. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-25 Culture & IQ Tests Questions on intelligence tests may contain cultural biasesQuestions on intelligence tests may contain cultural biases –Attempts to make tests culture-free have backfired as cultures may employ different problem-solving strategies –Cultural values & experiences influence a person’s outcomes E.g., attitude toward exams, comfort in testing situations, motivation, rapport, competitiveness, comfort in problem- solving, familiarity with testsE.g., attitude toward exams, comfort in testing situations, motivation, rapport, competitiveness, comfort in problem- solving, familiarity with tests

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-26 Expectations & IQ Tests Our own expectations about how we will do (often influenced by stereotypes) may alter people’s performanceOur own expectations about how we will do (often influenced by stereotypes) may alter people’s performance –Stereotype threat: a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group’s abilities

27. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-27 The Cognitive Approach Cognitive approach to intelligenceCognitive approach to intelligence –Assumes there are many kinds of intelligence and emphasizes the strategies people use when thinking about a problem and arriving at a solution –Reject the g factor as resulting from abilities taught & emphasized in school/society rather than how we think and problem-solve

28. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-28 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988)Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988) –Emphasizes information processing strategies, the ability to creatively transfer skills to new situations, and the practical application of intelligence –Three aspects of intelligence Componential or “analytical” (involves metacognition)Componential or “analytical” (involves metacognition) Experiential or “creative”Experiential or “creative” Contextual or “practical” (acquire tacit knowledge)Contextual or “practical” (acquire tacit knowledge)

29. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-29 Domains of Intelligence Gardner argued that the domains of intelligence should be expanded to include:Gardner argued that the domains of intelligence should be expanded to include: –Musical aptitude, kinesthetic intelligence, and capacity for into oneself, others or the natural world –Argued that domains are relatively independent –Emotional intelligence: ability to identify your own and other people’s emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-30 Thinking Critically about Intelligence Debate remains over the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligencesDebate remains over the issue of intelligence being a single “g” factor versus multiple intelligences Broadening definitions of intelligence has forced us to think more critically about what it isBroadening definitions of intelligence has forced us to think more critically about what it is Dynamic testing reveals a person’s ability to learnDynamic testing reveals a person’s ability to learn

31. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-31 Two Approaches Compared

32. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-32 Motivation & Intelligence Long-term studies of intelligence have demonstrated that motivation and self-discipline, not IQ, was what distinguished 100 most successful from 100 least successful menLong-term studies of intelligence have demonstrated that motivation and self-discipline, not IQ, was what distinguished 100 most successful from 100 least successful men Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture (& values)Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture (& values) –E.g., studies with children of different cultures on mathematical & reading abilities

33. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-33 Beliefs about Intelligence Asian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studyingAsian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe math ability comes from studying North Americans more likely to view ability as innateNorth Americans more likely to view ability as innate North American parents had lower academic standards for kidsNorth American parents had lower academic standards for kids North American children value education lessNorth American children value education less

34. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-34 Animal Minds Cognitive ethologyCognitive ethology –The study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals Some animals appear to be able to:Some animals appear to be able to: –Anticipate future events, make plans, coordinate activities with others –E.g., Köhler (1925) & chimpanzee Sultan

35. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-35 Animal Intelligence?

36. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-36 Animal Cognition Controversial question as to whether animals can demonstrate theory of mindControversial question as to whether animals can demonstrate theory of mind –A system of beliefs about the way one’s mind and the minds of others work –Knowledge of how individuals are affected by their beliefs and feelings

37. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-37 Animals & Language Language is the critical element of human cognition … so is there a comparable form in animals?Language is the critical element of human cognition … so is there a comparable form in animals? Qualifications of language:Qualifications of language: –Combinations must be meaningful –Must permit displacement –Must have grammar that permits productivity

38. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-38 Animals & Language Many animal species can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble languageMany animal species can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble language –Chimpanzees & bonobos can use American Sign Language (ASL) & symbol boards –Other examples include dolphins, border collies, and grey parrots who have been taught various skills relying on language

39. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-39 Thinking about Animal Thinking AnthropomorphismAnthropomorphism –The tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings AnthropodenialAnthropodenial –The tendency to think, mistakenly, that human beings have nothing in common with other animals

40. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada9-40Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada-40 End of Chapter 9 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada-40