1. Chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behaviour

2. Science is a Way of Thinking Understanding the natural, physical world Asking questions Systematically seeking answers Observation Evidence-based research

3. Basic Assumptions of Science 1. A true, physical universe exists 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system 3. The principles of the orderly universe can be discovered 4. All knowledge is tentative

4. Natural Science Approach to Psychology All behaviour is caused Causes precede their effects O natural phenomena Parsimony: the simplest explanation that fits the data is best

5. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge Scientific empiricism Tenacity Intuition Authority Rationalism (Logic)Logic Empiricism

6. Scientific Research Involves Pose a question How to answer it? Empirical observations (data collection) Data analysis

7. Science of Behaviour Circular explanations Q: why did the chicken cross the road?Q: how do we know the chicken wanted to get to the other side of the road? A: to get to the other side.A: because it crossed the road. Focus on physical events that elicit behaviour

8. Hard Line Behaviorism John B. Watson Psychology as “serious” science Only use observable events

9. Facts and Inferences Most facts observed in psychology are behaviours We infer the internal condition from facts Constructs: ideas formed from inferences

10. Learning A change in behaviour Experience Acquisition of new behaviour Loss of old behaviour Observable behaviour change = a fact

11. Behaviour Anything an agent does that can be measured Experience Events that affect or have potential to affect behaviour Stimulus –Physical event (internal or external to body)

12. Behaviour Change and Learning Not all change due to learning Maturation Fatigue Medication Evolution Injury Etc.

13. Measuring Learning Measure changes in behaviour Reduction in errors Change in topography Change in intensity Change in speed Change in latency Change in rate or frequency

14. Operational Definitions Precise way of defining events Multiple observers can agree on occurrence of event Can be variation in behaviour Interobserver reliability

15. Learning Curve Across situations –Humans/non-humans –Habituation, classical, operant, observational Commonly shown in textbooks Time/trials Responses/speed/ errors/etc.

16. Sample Size Maze study with rats Errors across trials 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 Subjects 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Subjects 1 & 2 Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1 & 2 Averages 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Subjects 1, 2 & 3 Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1, 2 & 3 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Subjects 1, 2, 3 & 4 Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1, 2, 3 & 4 Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321 1-5 1 234 1 2 3 4 Trials Errors Subjects 1-5 Trials Errors 1 2 3 4 43214321

17. Levels of Constraint Precision vs. flexibility –Sacrifice How much constraint? –Highest possible, given the questions being asked

18. Study Designs Naturalistic observations Low constraint High constraint Experimental research Case-study Descriptive Anecdotal evidence

19. Anecdotal Evidence First or second hand reports Personal experience Unidentified factors

20. Naturalistic Observations Observe subjects in natural setting Minimum interference Limited controls Semi-naturalistic

21. Case Study Individual or small group Detailed analysis Time consuming Representative sample?

22. Descriptive Often questionnaires, interviews, pre- existing data, simple data collection, etc. Often, but not always, uses –Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, st.dev.) –Correlational statistics: positive, negative, none Statistical analysis usually (but not always) seen for large data sets

23. Experimental Research Manipulate one or more variables Measure effect Independent and dependent variables High control Artificial environment? Simplistic dependent variable (i.e., behaviour)?

24. Between-Subjects Designs 2+ groups of subjects Independent variable different across groups Dependent variable differences due to exposure to different independent variables Representative sample Matched sampling

25. Within-Subject Design Each subject observed in different conditions Baseline and treatment phases ABAB design Independent variable varies within the subject Each subject both control & experimental “group”

26. Variables Variable: Any set of events that may have different values Behavioural variables Stimulus variables Subject variables Independent variables Dependent variables Constants

27. Validity and Reliability Validity –How well a study, a procedure, or a measure does what it is supposed to do. Reliability –How well a measure can be reproduced –Replicability

28. Hypotheses Hypothesis: A statement about relationships among variables that implies empirical testability Applied to a study or elements of a study A “mini-theory”

29. Theories Theory: A formalized set of concepts that organizes observations and inferences, and predicts and explains phenomena Applied to a collection of data derived from many studies Testable Theories can only be disproved

30. Judging Scientific Theories Testability/falsifiability Simplicity Generality Fruitfulness Agreement with the data

31. Evaluating Research Replication –Reliability –Conflicting results Sampling bias –Sample: collection of subjects selected for a study –Population: much larger collection of animals or people from which the sample was drawn

32. Evaluating Research Distortions in self-reports –Self-reports: subjects give a verbal/written account of their own performance Demand characteristics Experimental bias –Intentional and unintentional

33. Evaluating Research Single-, double-, and triple-blind procedures Placebo effects –Mithoefer & Mithoefer (2010) –Chronic therapy resistant PTSD; crime, war –Two exposure therapy sessions; MDMA or placebo –Two months later: PTSD in <17% MDMA subjects vs. 75% placebo subjects –Exposure therapy requires emotional engagement; hypothesize PTSD narrows patients’ “window” for engagement; MDMA may “widen the window” allowing them to stay engaged while revisiting traumatic experiences

34. Models Representations of reality –Analogies Need not be real –Make accurate predictions New ideas generated from models B1 R1 B1+B2 R1+R2 =

35. Animal Research Comparative psychology Models for human behaviour Simplified systems; more easily controlled Considerations: ethical, relevance of features, appropriateness

36. Issues Differences between species Knowledge of species Theoretical vs. practical value Ethical use of animals Computer simulations