1. EXTENDED AND TRANSFERRED MEANING :Metaphor and Metonymy
Shelley dreamed it. Now the dream decays.
The props crumble. The familiar ways
Are stale tears trodden underfoot.
The heart’s flower withers at the root.
Bury it, then, in history’s sterile dust.
The slow years shall tame your tawny lust.
(Song at the Years’s Turning by R.S Thoma’s )

2. Cultural Meanings transmitted by:
Classification of words: kinship terminologies
Focal meaning and prototypes:The best example of a word
Processes of semantic transfer and and extension: metaphors and metonymies

3. Metaphors
Unspecified comparisons between entities sharing some features: animal (lion) and human
Metaphor: an implied comparison between entity or event and another based on their sharing certain referential attributes. Metaphors highlight features of similarity between different entities.

4. ANGER IS HEAT and BODY IS CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONS
You make my blood boil.
She got all steamed up.
He's just blowing off steam.
He erupted.
He boiled over.
He exploded

5. BELIEFS are POSSESSIONS and IDEAS are OBJECTS
I hold certain beliefs.
He has strong beliefs.
He clings to his beliefs
Don't give up your beliefs.

6. Recurring Metaphors Our conceptual system: metaphorical in nature
We think and speak: conceptual metaphorical models

7. Metaphorical Concept: Time is Money
She spends her time unwisely.
The diversion should buy him some time.
You don’t use your time profitably.
How do you spend your time these days?
This gadget will save you hours.

8. Orientational opposition: “up” and “down”
Up Down
Emotions:You’re in high spirits. He’s feeling low today.
Consciousness: Wake up! She sank into a coma.
Health: He’s in top shape Her heath is declining.
Control: I’m on top of the situation. He fell from power.
Status: She’ll rise to the top. He’s at the bottom of society

9. Lineal Metaphors to set the record straight to straighten up, etc
“Keeping to the straight and narrow” (positive, indicates honesty)
“Wandering from the path” (negative, indicates untruthfulness)

10. Container images metaphors
transfers non-physical, non-tangible entities or processes into objects
He’s out of his mind.
She’s in love.
I feel under the whether

11. Do metaphorical processes occur cross-culturally?
In Navajo Many events are described with verbs that have the theme of movement as their focal meaning.
one dresses: one moves into clothing
one lives: one moves about here and there
one is young: one moves about newly
to sing: to move words out of an enclosed space

12. Metaphors of movement in English
Less crucial for cultural meaning
She followed in her mothers' footsteps.
The business was about to take flight.
His head was spinning with excitement.

13. Personification Metaphors
personification (Latin persona: "character", "person").
It occurs in many languages
Non-human entity is identified with a human one or given human characteristics.
Cricket has been good to me.
The New Zealand dollar had a quiet month.
Life dealt him a heavy blow.

14. METONYMY
A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated
highlight one aspect of an entity while by singling out one of its attributes
Example: We need more arms in here. (arms for people)

15. Metonymic entity associations
part of an object to substitute or represent the whole: Our company needs more brains.
Producer for the object produced: She likes to read Thomas Hardy.
Object used or owned by someone for the user/owner: The ’54 Chevy lives around the corner.

16. METAPHORS OF KINSHIP Common in many languages
Metaphorically refer to non-relatives
Express intimacy
Extended to plants and animals
Navajo: mother extended to earth, agricultural fields, corn, sheep

17. Complex semantic transfers (Kannada Language in India)
1st any adult women: adult women assumed to be married, assumed to be mothers
2nd to Goddesses: like mothers can be benevolent and punitive
3rd Metonymically the word Amma can mean smallpox: association of some goddesses with the cause and cure of the disease.

18. METAPHORS OF THE BODY
To describe actions, states or to label inanimate objects
Could you give me a hand with these boxes? action
It is very important for us all to put our heads together. action
Can you keep an eye on things here until I get back? action

19. Or expressions such as The backbone of society, The bowels of society.
Spies are the eyes and ears of a society:
The seat of emotions e.g. heart vs. head; Being in the midst of something
Getting to the heart of the matter.
More rarely, as a metaphor for will e.g.
He doesn’t have the heart to go on, his heart isn’t in it.

20. Summary
symbolic content of language expressed in both metaphoric and metonymic extensions and transfer
Metaphor is: Understanding and experiencing one kind of thing (anger or beliefs) in terms of another: Time is money
Metonymy: A process of replacing one entity with another related entity

21. Why do we need to understand metaphors and metonymies?
Learn about relationship between speaker and their physical and social environments
Learn about cultural priorities
Learning about cultural models

22. Study Question
What is the difference between metaphor and metonymy? What are their functions in language and in culture?