1. Cognition
Unit 6

2. Topics for Unit 6 Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Language
Thinking and Creativity

3. Memory
Memory is defined as an indication that learning has persisted over time
Two main explanations for how memory works:
Three Box Model
Level of Processing model

4. Three-Box Model
The Three-Box model (also called Information-processing model) is the most common explanation for how memories work
The three levels of memory in this model are
Sensory memory
Short-term/Working memory
Long-term memory

5. Sensory memory
The first area in which external events pass through is the sensory memory. Your sensory memory is a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information
All of the information we sense is held in our sensory memory.
Most information in our sensory memory is not encoded

6. Sensory memory
We encode what we selectively attend to. Selective attention determines what information is kept, and what slips away from our sensory memory.
Selective attention can be intentional or involuntary.
If we encode specific information in our sensory memory, it passes to our Short term memory.

7. Short Term Memory
Your short-term memory, or working memory, holds everything that you are currently thinking about.
Short term memory storage lasts for about seconds
You generally hold anywhere from 4-7 items in your short term memory.
There are ways to increase the amount of items remembered in short term memory

8. Short Term Memory
Chunking is an effective method of remembering more than 7 items. You group information together.
Think of a grocery list with 15 items. You chunk dairy items, produce, proteins to ensure you can remember everything
Also, mnemonic devices such as acronyms are helpful
Repeating or rehearsing is an effective way to help short term memories get encoded into long term memories

9. Long Term Memory
Long Term memory is our brain’s extensive storage unit
If a memory makes it to this stage, we can remember this information for the rest of our lives
Long term memories are stored in three formats
Episodic memory(detailed outlines of specific events)
Semantic memory(General world knowledge, facts, meanings, categories)
Procedural memory(skills and how to perform them, i.e., tying a shoelace)

10. Long Term Memory Memories can either be explicit or implicit
Explicit memories are memories of facts or events that we ACTIVELY TRIED to remember.
Implicit memories are UNITENTIONAL memories we have from life experiences.

11. Levels of Processing Model
Alternate model of how memories work
We either deeply process or shallowly process memories
An example of shallow processing would be memorizing a series of facts for a test which may be forgotten shortly after the test.
Deep processing refers to when we study the events and meanings and context to those same facts to create a greater and deeper understanding

12. Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory so we can use it.
Retrieval happens in two ways
Recall
Recognition

13. Recognition and Recall
Recognition is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory Have I met this person before? Recall is the process of retrieving a memory with an external clue What was that guy’s name I met at the game last week?

14. Serial Position Effect
One factor in why we are able to remember certain memories as opposed to others is by how they were presented to us. The order on a list that items are presented to us plays a factor
The primacy effect predicts that we are more likely to remember items at the beginning of lists. The recency effect is demonstrated by our ability to recall items at the end of a list.
Items in the middle of a list are often forgotten

15. Context
Context plays an important role in memory retrieval. The semantic network theory states that our brains form new memories by connecting their meaning and context with existing memories.
This explains the tip of the tongue phenomenon. Our brain is working to connect new information with old context clues in order to retrieve bits of stored information
Flashbulb memories refer to memories so powerful that we remember the context of our surroundings when they happened

16. Context
Emotional and situational context can also affect memory retrieval
Mood congruent memory is the idea that we have a higher likelihood of remembering memories if our current mood matches the mood at the time the memory is made
If we are happy we are more likely to remember memories made when we are happy and vice-versa

17. Constructive memory
A constructed memory can be a “recovered memory” where individuals suddenly remember events after years of it being repressed
Constructed memories can report false details of a real event or a recollection of an event that never happened
Leading and insistent questions can lead to false reports

18. Forgetting
Decay can lead to forgetting memories due to not using memories for long periods of time
Relearning is a way to jog your memory from concepts that were once learned but have since decayed, i.e., reviewing for exams
Retroactive interference is when learning new information interferes with recall of older info. Proactive interference is when older information interferes with the recall of info more recently learned

19. Language
Our use of language goes hand in hand with cognition. We think with language.
Language is defined as a set of spoken, written or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
All languages have specific elements that contribute to the overall make-up of that language

20. Language All languages have phonemes and morphemes.
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound used in a language. (Ah, eh, peh, steh, etc.) The English language consists of about 44
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaningful sound. They can be parts of words, or short words themselves. (Think prefixes such as an or pre)

21. Language Phonemes make up Morphemes, and Morphemes make up words.
The particular order in which these words are arranged, spoken and written is called syntax
Every language has it’s own syntax, or grammar.

22. Language Acquisition
The first stage of language acquisition occurs around 4 months of age. This is the babbling stage that babies go through.
Babies are experimenting with different phonemes and are capable of using phonemes from any language. It isn’t until later that our ability to use phonemes from other languages diminishes. (Think of rolling Rs in Spanish)

23. Language Acquisition
Around a baby’s 1st birthday, they enter the one word, or Holophrastic stage.
Mommy and daddy are common during this stage. Babies start to associate words with objects. (Car or kitty)
Around the 18 month mark, babies enter the Telegraphic or two word stage. Babies combine words, but lack syntax. (Now food!, or hungry me)

24. Opposing Language acquisition views
The Behaviorists argued that babies learned language through Operant conditioning. If a child correctly said “Fishy” and pointed to the fish tank, they might be rewarded(positive reinforcement) and the behavior may persist.
However, this theory was challenged by cognitive psychologists in recent history. They argued that children were capable of Innate learning.

25. Language Acquisition device
Noam Chomsky theorized that all humans are born with a Language acquisition device. This is the ability to learn language rapidly as a child.
Chomsky was amazed at how many words children could learn without explicit instruction of reward.
Chomsky added that our early childhood is a critical time to learn language and if the language is not developed properly in this time, it will be permanently damaged.

26. Thinking
Describing thought is a difficult thing to do. A description of thought is a though in of itself. Psychologists look to create categories for thought.
Concepts are rules that we apply to stimuli that allow us to categorize and think about the people, objects and ideas we encounter
We each have our own personal concepts of school, work, family, friends and so on. These concepts, however, may be based on prototypes

27. Thinking
Prototypes are what we think are the most typical example of a particular concept. How school is supposed to be, or what a parent is supposed to do. These prototypes of objects, ideas or people can determine our concepts
Images are the mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world. Images can be visual, auditory, olfactory and we can even have images of taste. (Imagining what pizza tastes like)

28. Problem solving
One was researchers examine thinking is how we solve problems. The two most common methods of problem solving are algorithms and heuristics.
An Algorithm is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or another foolproof method. It is essentially solving a problem by trying every possible method.

29. Problem solving
A heuristic is a rule of thumb. These are general rules that we can apply to a situation to solve a problem. They aren’t always correct, but are much faster than Algorithms.
The use of heuristics can be helpful but can also lead to problems. Overconfidence in our own judgments is typical in problem solving models.
Belief bias is when we make illogical conclusions to confirm a belief and belief perseverance is when we maintain a belief in the face of evidence that refutes our claims.

30. Problem solving
Another impediment to problem solving is our own rigidity. This refers to our tendency to fall into established thought patterns. Relying too much on old problem solving methods for new problems
A specific example of rigidity is functional fixedness. This is our inability to see new use for an object. (example, only seeing a microwave as a way to heat up cold food, but not considering that it can be use to heat up water for tea)

31. Problem solving
Even the way a problem is presented to us can get in the way of solving it. Framing refers to the way a problem is presented. If I tell a group of students they need to solve a really hard problem, they will expect a difficult task and may quickly give up.
If I give the same problem and say it is easy, they may be much more likely to solve it based on their view of the question.

32. Creativity
Creativity is also very hard to define. The two most likely factors to be attributed to creativity are originality and appropriateness.
Convergent thinking is thinking that is pointed towards one solution while divergent thinking searches for multiple solutions to one problem.
Divergent thinking is linked much more closely with creativity.