1. AP Government Review
Please review these slides whenever possible between now and the AP test.

2. Why do so many contemporary voters not register w/ either major party?
People see the Democrats & Republicans as lacking vision for the country, not representing the voters’ views, as being too similar to one another, & as only caring about defeating or humiliating the other party. As a result, many people don’t want to associate themselves definitively w/ either party.
What are the culture wars?
This refers to the idea that there are two cultural classes in the U.S., & that these 2 groups engage in a constant battle over values. This idea is frequently simplified into a clash between liberals & conservatives.

3. Some historians believe that presidents are successful when they can persuade what 5 constituencies?
The most important constituencies are the public, executive officialdom, Congress, the partisans, & foreign leaders & publics.
Why is the system of elections in the U.S. biased against the success of 3rd party candidates?
The single-member plurality does not allow 3rd party candidates to get enough votes to be the state or national level. Under this system, a 3rd party candidate would have to get more votes than any of the major party candidates to win the seat, which is highly unlikely.

4. What are legislative vetoes? Are they constitutional?
Legislative vetoes are a method by which Congress, in either one or both houses, blocks a proposed executive action. Vetoes are frequently used for presidential reorganization plans of the executive branch. These vetoes were declared unconstitutional in INS v. Chadha (1983), when the Supreme Court decided that they violated the doctrine of separation of powers.
What is a representative sample in a poll?
Everyone in the population has an = probability of being selected. Generally, a national sample is 1,000 to 1,500 adults. Pollsters hoping to attain an accurate picture of the public opinion on a particular issue use this technique.

5. What is the social contract theory of government?
One of the basic principles of constitutional government in the U.S. It is based on the philosophies of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, & Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It holds that people are free & = & possess natural rights, & that they give up some of their natural freedoms in exchange for protection & services from the government.
Which age group votes the most? The least?
People between 18 and 24 vote the least, while those over 45 vote the most.

6. What is symbolic speech?
Symbolic speech refers to unspoken illustrated methods of protest. Similar to pure speech, it is protected when it does not incite violence or cause a clear & present danger to public welfare.
What is the most important factor that predicts whether a citizen will vote?
Level of education is the most important factor.
What is the most common form of political participation?
Voting is the most common form of political participation.

7. What are Thomas Hobbes’ arguments in Leviathan?
Hobbes believed that humans are basically selfish, individualistic, & war w/ each other. Therefore, people need an institution to govern them & to maintain order. Hobbes argued for a single ruler, even a strong monarch, to protect the rights of the weak against the wishes of the strong.
What are John Locke’s arguments in the Second Treatise on Civil Government?
Locke argued that humans, in the state of nature, were born = & that they possessed natural rights that no king had the power to void. The consent of the governed is the only true basis of a king or sovereign’s right to rule. Therefore, a chief executive, according to Locke, is limited by this social contract w/ the governed.

8. What are the negative consequences of early exit polls?
Voters in the Midwest & on the West Coast are influenced by the results on the East Coast, which are broadcast well before voting finishes further west. If there is a clear majority for one candidate, it could potentially discourage voters in the Midwest or on the West Coast from voting at all.
What is the doctrine of incorporation?
The Supreme Court uses the 14th Amendment to apply the protections of the Bill of Rights to the states. For example, in the 1925 case Gitlow v. New York, a man was indicted by the states for seditious speech. The Court found that the federal protection of free speech should be applied to the states.

9. What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 accomplish?
How are the functions of the legislative, executive, & the judicial branches separated & checked in the Constitution?
According to Article III of the Constitution, Congress has the power to establish lower courts, According to Article II, the Senate has the power to confirm presidential appointment of all federal & Supreme Court judges. Marburry v. Madison (1803) established the precedent of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to decide if state & federal laws are constitutional.
What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 accomplish?
Prohibited discrimination in employment & in places of public accommodation, outlawed bias in federally funded programs, & created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

10. What are the major forces in public policymaking?
How does the power of judicial review act as a check on the legislative & executive branches?
John Marshall expanded the Supreme Court’s power in the landmark 1803 Marburry v. Madison decision by writing that it was the duty of the Supreme Court to ‘say what the law is” & declare laws passed by Congress, & acts of the executive, invalid if they are in contradiction w/ the Constitution.
What are the major forces in public policymaking?
They include organized & disorganized groups, the courts, the bureaucracy, the Senate, & the national media.

11. What role does Congress play in the formation of foreign policy?
Congress plays a role in the development of foreign policy by making recommendations to the president on foreign relations, approving treaties, & approving nominations of ambassadors.
What are the differences between categorical grants, block grants, & revenue sharing?
Categorical grants are for specific purposes & often require local matching funds. Block grants are devoted to general purpose w/ few restrictions. Revenue sharing requires no matching funds & allows much greater freedom in spending decisions.
What are the views of those generally thought to be liberals in modern American Politics?
Liberals support an active government role in promoting individual welfare & supporting civil rights. They accept peaceful political & social change within the political system.

12. What is the intergovernmental lobby?
What are the views of those generally thought to be conservatives in modern American politics?
Conservatives promote a limited role for government in helping individuals economically, support traditional values & lifestyles, & favor a more active role for the government in promoting national security. They approach change cautiously.
What is the intergovernmental lobby?
State & local governments act as any other groups in the policymaking process when it comes to hiring lobbyists to try to advance their interests & gain access to federal policymakers. School districts, cities, states, police chiefs, & hospitals also hire lobbyists to represent & advance their interests.

13. What are the primary functions of political parties in the U.S.?
Running candidates for office, connecting citizens to their government, informing the public, & organizing the government.
What is hyper-pluralism?
The idea that the U.S. contains so many groups that represent so many different interests that there is a virtual deadlock of government action.
How did the doctrine of dual federalism develop?
The Supreme Court decision in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) reaffirmed the concept of federal supremacy over interstate trade & state supremacy over interstate trade. This created dual federalism. The national government has subsequently intruded into matters once reserved for the states, & dual federalism can hardly be said to exist any longer.

14. What is pluralist theory?
What 2 significant pieces of legislation increased voting opportunities?
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited any discriminatory voter registration practices, while the Voting Right Act of 1965 required the federal government to put an end to poll taxes & literacy tests in states.
What is pluralist theory?
In the U.S., which has a political system of widely scattered resources, government is mainly concerned w/ a competition among groups. Policy results when the group w/ the dominant interest prevails.

15. What are the conflicting philosophies of equality of opportunity & equality of results?
Equality of opportunity is the belief that all persons should be able to achieve success if they are given the same original opportunities. Equality of results is the belief that everyone can achieve the same results despite differences in backgrounds if they work hard enough & overcome obstacles.
How do the characteristics of a totalitarian system differ from a democratic system?
In a totalitarian system, government retains unlimited powers for the benefit of elite rulers. The government has total control over the people & the economy. In a democracy the gov. is limited by law, representatives are chosen by the people, dissent is tolerated, & citizen membership in autonomous groups is allowed.

16. Define political culture.
How does the political culture of the United States compare to that of Europe?
Political culture in the U.S. stresses individualism, competition, equality, and following the rules. Europeans, in particular, stress communalism, social responsibility, & cooperation. People in the U.S. vote less but participate in other ways more, have greater access to their local officials, & have more faith in their national institutions than people in other nations.
Define political culture.
Political culture is a set of basic values & beliefs about a country or government shared by most citizens.

17. What factors contribute to the development of political efficacy?
Efficacy is the feeling that one can understand gov. & can effectively participate in it, & that government will respond to citizens’ demands. Efficacy is dependent on several factors. The most important variable seems to be education: the higher the education, the higher the efficacy.
What constitutes voting turnout?
Turnout refers to the proportion of the public that actually votes, not those that are registered to vote. About 40% of the eligible adult population votes regularly, 25% are occasional voters, & 35% rarely or never vote.

18. What amendments were passed following the Civil War to ensure the rights of former slaves?
The 13th amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment defined citizenship & provided for due process & equal protection of the laws. The 15th Amendment stated that individuals could not be denied the right to vote based on race or former servitude.
How does Article VI of the Constitution establish the supremacy of the federal government?
Article 6 states that the Constitution & the laws of the U.S. are the supreme law of the land. The Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland (1918) that federal laws are supreme over state laws, & when a state law comes into conflict w/ a federal law, the federal law prevails. This has come to be called the supremacy clause.

19. What are the non-legislative powers of Congress?
What specific rights & prohibitions are mentioned in the body of the Constitution?
The Constitution mentions the writ of habeas corpus, the protection of citizens from state to state, limits on excessive punishment, guarantee of republican government, & trial by jury in federal courts. It forbids bills of attainder, ex post facto laws, and religious oath requirements.
What are the non-legislative powers of Congress?
They include electoral powers, in the case of the failure of the electoral college; impeachment powers, which allow formal charges to be brought in the House; executive powers, which allow the Senate to approve appointments & confirm treaties; & investigative & oversight powers, which allow Congress to oversee the executive branch.

20. Is the legislative veto a constitutional use of presidential power?
No. leg. Veto was declared unconstitutional in Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983), which stated that Congress cannot take any actions having the force of law unless the president agrees.
What is presidential impoundment?
Impoundment is the presidential practice of refusing to spend $ appropriated by Congress. The Budget Reform Act of 1974 requires the president to spend all appropriated funds, unless Congress approves all impoundments.

21. How has procedural due process been defined by the courts?
What is the basic difference between direct democracy & representative democracy?
In a direct democracy, all citizens participate, meet, and make decisions about public policy issues. In a representative democracy (also known as a republic), citizens elect representatives to make policy decisions in the citizens’ interests.
How has procedural due process been defined by the courts?
Miranda v. Arizona (1966) established that the rights of an accused person must be read & understood by that person upon arrest. These rights include the right to remain silent & the right to have an attorney provided.

22. What are the agents of political socialization?
The most important agents of political socialization are family, religion, school, peers, group affiliations, & exposure to mass media.
What is the nature of tolerance in the United States?

23. How is the vice president replaced without a popular election?
The president nominates a new vice president, who assumes the office when both houses of Congress approve the nomination. A vice president who assumes the presidency then nominates a new vice president who is also confirmed by Congress.
What are the president’s 4 options when a bill has passed through Congress?
The president can sign it, the president can veto it, the president can do nothing & the bill will become law if in the middle of a congressional session, or the president can do nothing & the bill will die if it is ten days from congressional adjournment ( a pocket veto.)

24. How does region affect public opinion in the United States?
The South is the least liberal, w/ the Midwest somewhat more liberal, & the East & West most liberal. The South became part of the Democratic coalition because Southerners were liberal on economic issues. However, the rise of racial & social issues (on which the South is quite conservative) ended southern attachment to the Democratic Party.
How does race affect public opinion?
African Americans are generally more liberal than other racial groups on issues ranging from housing discrimination to the death penalty, national defense, & national health insurance. Blacks are the most consistently liberal group within the Democratic Party. Hispanics & Asian Americans are less liberal.

25. How did the 3/5 Compromise balance the interests of the northern & southern states?
The North wanted slaves counted for taxation but not representation, & the South wanted slaves counted for representation but not taxation. The compromise resolved this issue by stating that each state would count three-fifths of its slave population for purposes of determining both representation and taxation.
What major issue divided large & small the Constitutional Convention? How was it resolved?
Equitable representation for large & small states in the legislature. Large states pushed for representation determined by population; small states wanted equal representation for every state. The Great Compromise (also known as the Connecticut Compromise) created a bicameral national legislature.

26. What issues affect the ability of people to vote?
What is an exit poll?
As voters leave their polling place, pollsters ask them whom they voted for. These are usually more accurate than polls prior to an election because exit polls measure actual voters, not likely voters. Additionally, people are less likely to lie directly after they have voted.
What issues affect the ability of people to vote?
The Constitution leaves it up to the individual states to regulate specific voting requirements. Issues such as residency requirements, registration procedures, age, and voting times affect the ability of people to vote.

27. What is political socialization?
Political socialization is the process by which citizens acquire a sense of political identity. Socialization allows citizens to become aware of politics; form political values, opinions, and attitudes; and to associate themselves with a political party.
What determines whether an issue is on the policymaking agenda?
The most important factors are shared political values, the weight of custom and tradition, the impact of events, the coverage of these events by the mass media, and changes in the way political elites think about politics.
What is fiscal policy?
Fiscal policy is the policy of taxation and spending that makes up the nation’s economic policy and is designed to improve the overall economic health of the nation.

28. What is the difference between the authorization and the appropriation of funds for the budget?
When a law is passed that sets up a government program, Congress must pass an authorization bill that states the maximum amount of money available. When the nation’s budget is set, only Congress can set the appropriations, or the actual amount available in a given year, for each program that it has authorized.
According to Alexis de Tocqueville’s (Democracy in America), why was democracy so successful in the United States?
De Tocqueville claimed that the independent frontier spirit of the people, the abundance of fertile land, and the fact that the United States lacks a feudal past all combined to ensure the success of democratic government.

29. Explain the balance between majority rule and minority rights.
In the United States, the will of the majority extends only until it takes away the rights of the minority. Political culture in the United States will often protect the rights of the minority at the expense of the will of the majority. This is to ensure that the minority voice will still be heard.
List the core values of political culture in the United States.
The core values of political culture in the Unites States are liberty, equality, individualism, democracy, rule of law, and equality under the law.
What is the difference between civil rights and civil liberties?
Civil liberties are those rights that belong to everyone. They are protections against government and are guaranteed by the Constitution, legislation, and judicial decisions. Civil rights are the positive acts of government designed to prevent discrimination and provide equal protection under the laws.

30. How is presidential power limited by the War Powers Act of 1973?
The War Powers Act compels the president to notify Congress within forty-eight hours if troops have been placed in hostile situations and seek congressional approval after troops have been in combat for sixty days.
The most recent grouping of issues added to the policy agenda were a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, What parts of the bureaucracy are dealing with these issues?
The Department of Homeland Security and the military have been dealing with these issues.

31. How does the bureaucracy provide social welfare to needy citizens?
Since 1996, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program replaced the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program, giving fixed block grants to the states to design their own welfare programs. Whatever the states do not spend do not spend on their own programs, they can keep.
What are at least two examples of the Supreme court setting the public policy agenda?
The 1954 Brown v. Board of Education school desegregation case, the 1962 Engle v. Vitale prayer case, the 1973 Roe v. Wade abortion rights case, and the 1976 Gregg v. Georgia death penalty case are all instances of the Court setting the policy agenda.

32. Even though there is no national healthcare system in the United States, the largest portion of government spending is for what entitlement program?
The Medicare and Medicaid programs account for the largest portion of government spending.
How did the decision in Mapp v. Ohio illustrate the Supreme Court’s attempt to balance the right of the accused with the state’s right to protect its citizens?
In the Mapp case, the Court established the exclusionary rule, whereby a state cannot use evidence obtained during an illegal search in court against the accused. This has been modified to allow a good faith exception to the rule, which gives the state the freedom to use evidence obtained without a warrant in some cases.

33. What two events changed the nature of public trust in the presidency and Congress?
The first event was the Vietnam War. Press coverage of the Vietnam War, including body counts and war footage shown on TV for the first time, changed the way the public viewed foreign policy and the presidency. The second pivotal event was the press coverage of the Watergate scandal and the revelations pf corruption in the White House.
How does the president have an advantage over Congress in influencing public opinion?
The bully pulpit is a tool the president uses to influence public opinion that is unavailable to Congress, The president can appeal directly to the people through televised speeches, press conferences, and other events.

34. What are the most common criticisms of bureaucracy?
The most common criticisms are that bureaucracy promotes excessive rules, regulations, & paperwork; that it fosters interagency conflict; that tasks are duplicated by various agencies; that there is too much waste & unchecked growth; and that there is a lack of accountability.
What are some suggestions for reforming bureaucracy?
Some suggestions include limiting appointments to fixed terms, requiring reexaminations & periodic performance reviews, making the firing of a bureaucrat easier, requiring employee initiative, & rotating professionals into the bureaucracy from the private sector.

35. What is a litmus test for judges and is it legal?
Presidents appoint judges to federal courts based on whether the judges have a similar ideology to their own. This process is in fact a litmus test to see if these judges live up to this ideology before being nominated for the Supreme Court. The existence of this test is denied, & is technically illegal.
What did the Americans w/ Disabilities Act of 1990 accomplish?
The 1990 Act forbids employers & owners of public accommodations from discriminating against people w/ disabilities. States now are required to make all public buildings wheelchair accessible, & make sure that all public services provide equal access to all persons.

36. What are the differences between categorical grants & block grants?
Categorical grants, including project grants & formula grants, are federal aid that meets the criteria of a specific category & have strings attached, such as requirements to obtain the funds. Block grants go to local communities for specific purposes, w/ fewer strings attached. States have greater control over block grants.
What is judicial activism & judicial restraint?
Activism is the belief that judicial decisions should influence social policy. This advocates applying the Constitution to social and political questions. Judicial restraint is the belief that the judiciary should not take the initiative on social & political questions & should operate strictly within the limits of the Constitution.

37. How did the Marbury v. Madison decision establish judicial review?
In his opinion of this case, John Marshall wrote it is “the province & duty of the court to say what the law is.” This meant that the Judiciary Act of 1789 passed by Congress was in violation of the Constitution. By striking down an existing law, the court established judicial review.
What is gerrymandering?
The process of dividing out congressional districts, following the census, to favor 1 political party or group over another.
How is Congress apportioned?
Every 10 years, the census bureau conducts the national census of each state’s population. The House’s 435 seats are re-divided according to changes in population of the states. Each state is least 1 rep. in the House by the Constitution.

38. How have civil liberties & civil rights evolved over time?
How are the functions of the executive & legislative branches separate in regard to lawmaking?
The executive sets the legislative agenda through addresses to the people, dealings w/ the party leaders in Congress, & introducing new initiatives. Congress introduces new legislation, passes it through the committee systems & to the floors of both houses for votes, & then to the president’s desk. If vetoed, Congress may pass the bill into law w/ a 2/3 majority in both houses.
How have civil liberties & civil rights evolved over time?
The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, & the Bill of Rights set out the basic foundations for the protections of civil liberties & civil rights. These rights have evolved through legislative action & judicial interpretation, & through the addition of later amendments, specifically the 14th Amendment.

39. What is client politics?
How has the freedom of religion in the schools been interpreted by the Supreme Court?
The Court has interpreted the establishment clause of the 1st Amendments to mean different things at different times. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court ruled that parochial school children could be bussed to school; in Engle v. Vitale (1962) the Court banned school prayer; & in Westside School District v. Mergens (1990) the Court ruled that school facilities can be used for nonexclusive religious organizations after school hours.
What is client politics?
When a policy confers a benefit on 1 the expense of other people it is known as client politics. For example, states regulate occupations, such as barbers, dry-cleaners, & so on. These regulations protect the public but also set standards for entry into these professions, allowing members to both charge higher prices & restrict entry.

40. List @ least 3 methods of informally amending the Constitution?
Legislative actions are those in which Congress passes laws that alter or clarify the meaning of the Constitution. Executive actions entail the use of presidential power & that can change the meaning of the Constitution. Judicial review or interpretation occurs when the judiciary interprets the Constitution & rules on cases that then become law.
What is the most common method of amending the Constitution?
The most common way is for a bill to pass by a 2/3 majority vote of each house of Congress & then be ratified by ¾ of the state legislatures. This method has been used 26 times to amend the Constitution.

41. How did Shay’s Rebellion demonstrate the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?
Shays led an armed rebellion of debtors in western Massachusetts that the state militia was unable to immediately control. The event forced a stronger central government that could exert control over its citizens.
What were the 3 central arguments against ratification of the Constitution put forth by the Anti-Federalists?
1st, the Anti-Federalists supported states rights & feared a strong central government. 2nd, they believed that the Constitution would create an elite economic class that would abuse individual rights. Finally, they wanted fewer limits on popular participation in the political process.

42. What are the criticisms of unfunded mandates?
What does a sampling error of + or – 3% in a public opinion poll really mean?
The results of the poll could actually be 3 points higher or lower than the # reported. For example, if the results of the poll were Democrats 45%, Republicans 52# w/ a +/- 3% sampling error, the actual results could be 42 % or 48% for the Democrats & 49% or 55% for the Republicans.
What are the criticisms of unfunded mandates?
Unfunded mandates are where states are forced to pay for programs that are required by federal law yet not funded by federal dollars. This forces states to either raise taxes or cut services to citizens. The decision regarding how citizens are taxed or supported is taken out of the states’ hands by the federal government.

43. What is the devolution revolution?
Describes the tendency of the federal government to place responsibility for how grant $ is spent in the hands of the states. There is an emphasis on solving the state & local levels, rather the federal level.
Which theory of government claims that small groups of individuals &/or businesses dominate the policymaking process in their own interests?
Elitism is the theory of government that claims that small groups of individuals dominate policymaking.

44. What is pluralist theory?
In the United States, which has a political system of widely scattered resources, government is mainly concerned with a competition among groups. Policy results when the group with the dominant interest prevails.
How do the characteristics of a totalitarian system differ from a democratic system?
In a totalitarian system, government retains unlimited powers for the benefit of elite rulers. The government has total control over the people and the economy. In a democracy the government is limited by law, representatives are chosen by the people, dissent is tolerated, and citizen membership in autonomous groups is allowed.

45. What is the nature of tolerance in the United States?
What are the conflicting philosophies of equality of opportunity and equality of results?
Equality of opportunity is the belief that all persons should be able to achieve success if they are given the same original opportunities. Equality of results is the belief that everyone can achieve the same results despite differences in backgrounds if they work hard enough to overcome obstacles.
What is the nature of tolerance in the United States?
The overwhelming majority believe in freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right for unpopular groups to assemble and petition. However, when surveyors ask Americans specifically about a particular group that they dislike intensely, tolerance levels tend to decrease dramatically.

46. What are the culture wars?
This refers to the idea that there are two cultural classes in the United States, and that these two groups engage in a constant battle over values. This idea is frequently simplified into a clash between liberals and conservatives.
How does the political culture of the United States compare to that of Europe?
Political culture in the United States stresses individualism, competition, equality, and following the rules. Europeans, in particular, stress communalism, social responsibility, and cooperation. People in the United States vote less but participate in other ways more, have greater access to their local officials, and have more faith in their national institutions than people in other nations.

47. What factors contribute to the development of political efficacy?
Efficacy is the feeling that one can understand government and can effectively participate in it, and that government will respond to citizens’ demands. Efficacy is dependent on several factors. The most important variable seems to be education: the higher the education, the higher the efficacy.
How does region affect public opinion in the United States?
The South is the least liberal, with the Midwest somewhat more liberal, and the East and West most liberal. The South became part of the Democratic coalition because Southerners were liberal on economic issues. However, the rise of racial and social issues(on which the South is quite conservative) ended southern attachment to the Democratic Party.

48. How does race affect public opinion?
African Americans are generally more liberal than other racial groups on issues ranging from housing discrimination to the death penalty, national defense, and national health insurance. Blacks are the most consistently liberal group within Democratic Party. Hispanics and Asian Americans are less liberal.
What constitutes voting turnout?
Turnout refers to the proportion of the public that actually votes, not those that are registered to vote. About 40 percent of the eligible adult population votes regularly, 25 percent are occasional voters, and 35 percent rarely or never vote.
Why is voting turnout so low in the United States?
The most common reasons cited for low turnout are scheduling conflicts, registration difficulties, political fatigue, and political apathy.

49. How can the United States improve voting turnout?
Some suggestions include expanding the absentee voting program, declaring election day a holiday, and mobilizing party politics.
What is ticket-splitting?
Ticket-splitting occurs when people ignore traditional party labels and vote across party lines. Ticket-splitters account for nearly 60 percent of the ballots in some elections. People are more likely to vote based on a candidate’s image or a candidate’s view on a single issue as opposed to party affiliation.
What role does religion play in forming political attitudes?
In general, Protestants are more conservative on economic matters than are Catholics or Jews. Jews tend to be more liberal on economic and social issues than are Catholics or Protestants. Catholics tend to be more liberal on economic issues than they are on social issues

50. Is there a political gender gap in the United States?
Up until 1960s, women tended to vote Republican in a hearth-and-home mentality. Since the 1960s, women have been more likely than men to support the Democratic party. This has been explained by the advent of the women’s rights movement and the Democrats’ tendency to support causes that women favor, such as environmental protection and education.
What are the differences between liberals, conservatives, and libertarians in the United States?
Conservatives favor state over federal action, emphasize fiscal responsibility, and feel that social issues are best addressed by the private sector. Liberals tend to favor a more active government, especially in terms of regulation of the economy. Libertarians believe in free market economics, personal privacy, and extremely limited government.

51. What makes an interest group successful?
To be successful, interest groups need strong leadership, solid funding, and an active membership base.
How do citizens form political beliefs and opinions?
Political beliefs and opinion are largely the result of two factors. The first is that of personal benefits, where in citizens hold beliefs that best promote their own interests. The second factor is the political and historical knowledge of citizens. People who lack much political or historical knowledge are generally more easily persuaded by media representations of politics than those who have more knowledge.

52. Why have political parties declined in influences?
The government has gradually taken over many of the functions that were performed by the party-based political machines. The government now prints ballots, provides social welfare monies, conducts elections, and so on, so party organizations have fewer functions and less ability to enforce party-line votes and strict discipline. Also, many people think that the major parties do not represent the interests of the populace.
What were the reforms instituted by the McGovern-Fraser Commission?
In1969, the commission determined that minorities, women, youth, and the poor were not adequately represented at the Democratic Party national conversation. The party adopted guidelines that increased representation of these groups. The number of super-delegates (governors, member of the Congress, and other top party leaders) was reduced substantially.

53. What are the campaign finance limits that apply to Political Action Committees?
There are over 4,000 PACs registered with the Federal Election commission. They gave over $179 million to congressional candidates in 1994, & in 1996 gave $201 million. Political Action Committees are limited by the Federal Election Campaign Act of They may only donate $5000 per candidate and may give only $15,000 to the party per calendar year.
In what ways do people participate in the political process in the United States?
According to University of Michigan studies of the campaign of 200, 82% of people watched the campaign on TV, 73% voted in the election (an unlikely #), 34 % tried to influence others how to vote, 10% put a sticker on their car or wore a button, 9% gave $ to a campaign, 5% attended a political meeting, & 3 % worked for a party or a candidate.

54. How are political parties organized?
What is lobbying, & what are the most common techniques employed by interest groups?
Lobbying is seeking to influence & persuade others to support your group’s position. The most popular ways to lobby include legislative hearings, talking directly to officials, helping to draft legislation, alerting state legislators of a bill’s effects on their districts, mounting grassroots campaigns, donating $, & endorsing candidates.
How are political parties organized?
Parties are made up of 3 types of members. Governmental members are the office holders & candidates; organizational members are the workers & activists; & electorate members are those who vote for the party or consider themselves to be associated with it. Parties are structured in a hierarchy, w/ the national party the top, then the 50 state committees, & then local county committees.

55. What laws regulate congressional lobbying?
The Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946 required lobbyists to register & file quarterly financial reports, but few complied. With the 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act, lobbyists are required to register w/ the Clerk of the House or the Secretary of the Senate, report their clients, & estimate the amount they were paid by each client.
What are the electioneering activities of interest groups?
Electioneering includes endorsing candidates, rating candidates or office holders based on their voting record, creating political parties, promoting campaigns & registration drives, & fundraising.
What is grassroots lobbying?
Refers to the lobbying of everyday people in an attempt to rally them to support a cause or join interest groups. The goal is to get constituents to argue your case for you. Grassroots lobbying is often quite effective.

56. Do Political Action Committees buy influence?
What is the free-rider problem as it pertains to public interest groups?
Some interest groups have difficulty attracting membership because individuals who are not members of the group can share in the group’s successes without cost. Students, for example, do not have to be members of the United States Student Association to benefit from its lobbying efforts.
Do Political Action Committees buy influence?
During the 2004 election cycle, Political Action Committees contributed millions of dollars to Senate, house, gubernatorial, state, & local races. Evidence suggests, however, that there is no guarantee that contributions will change the vote by any legislator on any issue.
What does it mean that interest groups have an upper-class bias?
Those citizens involved in interest groups tend to be better educated, wealthier, & more aware of political issues. Therefore, some individuals & some interests are better represented by lobbyists than are others.

57. What is meant by media conglomeration?
About 80% of all daily newspapers are owned by 7 corporations. Only 2% of American cities have more than 1 major newspaper. About 85% of T.V. stations in the U.S. are affiliated w/ 1 of the 4 major networks, which themselves are owned by huge conglomerates. Therefore, few viewpoints on news & entertainment are being presented.
What is the equal time rule?
The equal time rule requires broadcasters who permit 1 candidate to campaign on T.V. stations to allow equal identical rates to all candidates for the same office.
What are trial balloons?
The president & the executive branch will leak information to the press through anonymous sources so that the administration may test out an idea or a policy on the public & gauge public reaction.

58. Does the mass media change people’s opinions about issues?
Usually not. However, T.V. news presentations are particularly effective in shaping the public’s attribution of responsibility for scandalous activities. The continuous, repeated presentations encourage the public to blame the individuals involved, while thematic coverage leads the viewers to attribute responsibility to societal forces.
Why does the media have difficulty in covering the Supreme Court?
The complex nature of Supreme Court decisions, the wording contained in the written opinions, & the specialized knowledge needed to interpret the decisions make it difficult for the public to understand, & for reporters to accurately report, what the Court is doing on a daily basis.
What are the constitutional qualifications to run for the house of representatives?
According to Article I of the Constitution, a person must be 25, a citizen of the U.S. for 7 years, & a resident of the state (but not necessarily the district) in question.

59. What are the constitutional requirements to run for the Senate?
According to Article I of the Constitution, a person must be 30, a citizen of the U.S. for 9 years, & a resident of the state in question.
What does it mean to run for Congress by running against Congress?
Many people believe that Congress is broken & incapable of effectively solving the problems of the nation in a timely fashion. Therefore, when people run for office, they position themselves as outside the institution, ready to effect change and fix what is broken w/ the institution.
What is the practice of senatorial courtesy & when is it used?
Senatorial courtesy is used when presidents appoint judges. Presidents often defer to senators of their own party to suggest nominees for federal district court vacancies in senators’ home states.

60. Is Congress representative of the population of the United States?
Not really, The average lawmaker in the U.S. is white, male, middle aged, & Protestant, which is hardly representative of the population. In the 109th congress, there were 68 women, 42 African Americans, & 24 Hispanics in the House of representatives (out of 435 total members), & only 14 women, 1 African American, & 2 Hispanics in the Senate (out of 100 total members).
What is the origin of the claim of presidential executive privilege?
Executive privilege allows the president to withhold information from the courts or Congress. In 1973, the Supreme Court ruled that such a claim was valid when sensitive military or diplomatic matters were involved, but it refused to recognize an “absolute unqualified” presidential privilege of immunity. The Constitution makes no mention of executive privilege.

61. What is the imperial presidency?
The historian Arthur Schlesinger coined the term imperial presidency in the early 1970s to reflect the fact that the presidency was asserting increasing amounts of dominance over foreign & domestic policymaking. The institution of the presidency was very strong in the years following WWII though the Vietnam War.
What are the differences between a presidential & a parliamentary form of government?
In a presidential system, the president & the legislature are independently elected, each w/ their own constituencies, & are not beholden to one another for their tenure in office. In a parliamentary government, the prime minister is the head of government, chosen by the legislature. There is no separation between the executive & the legislative branches of government.

62. How does the president influence the bureaucracy?
Agencies are accountable to the president, & the president can push policy preferences through these agencies by appointing senior bureaucrats, issuing executive orders, proposing additions or cuts to an agency’s budget, & reorganizing or combining agencies as a reward or punishment.
Who were the only presidents ever to be impeached?
In 1868, after violating the Tenure in Office Act, the House of representatives impeached Andrew Johnson. The Senate failed to convict him in the impeachment trial by a 1 vote margin. In 2000, the house impeached Bill Clinton on counts of perjury & obstructing justice. He was also acquitted by the Senate.
How is the federal budget formulated?
1st, each federal agency submits a detailed estimate of its needs for the year to the Office of management & Budget. Then the OMB holds meetings to coordinate all requests into a single budget request, which the president will then submit to Congress in January or February.

63. What is hyper-pluralism?
The idea that the U.S. contains so many groups that represent so many different interests that there is a virtual deadlock of government action.
What are the 2 basic kinds of policy agendas?
The 2 basic kinds of policy agendas are the systemic agenda, which is a discussion agenda of all issues that are seen as meriting public attention, & the governmental or institutional agenda, which refers only to those problems that legislators or public officials feel are worth serious time & attention.
How does the 1996 Welfare Reform Act balance the budgetary restraints of the federal & state governments?
The act is a landmark piece of legislation that devolves welfare payment responsibilities from the federal legislatures, funded by taxes, to the individual state governments, who receive block grants & are required to create individualized programs.

64. What are issue networks?
What are the historic trends of presidential popularity during terms of office?
W/ the exceptions of Eisenhower, Reagan, & Clinton, every president has lost popular support between inauguration & departure from office. A president’s popularity tends to be highest immediately following election or reelection. The 1st 100 days of a presidency tend to be the most productive from a legislative standpoint.
What are issue networks?
Issue networks utilize members of many different segments of political society to formulate policy on a certain issue. The participants include Washington-based interest groups, congressional staffers, members of Congress, members of the bureaucracy, university faculty, experts participating in think tanks, representatives of the mass media, political consultants, & lawyers.

65. How is the power of a bureaucratic agency determined?
The power of a bureaucracy lies in its ability to make autonomous decisions. The bureaucracy has discretionary authority in 3 major areas; paying subsidies to groups & organizations (such as farmers, schools, hospitals, or veterans), transferring $ from the federal government to state & local government (through grant-in-aid programs), & devising & enforcing regulations (such FCC licenses or drug approvals).
Who files amicus curiae briefs in Supreme Court cases?
In most Supreme Court cases, interest groups on the side of the petitioner or respondent will file a written statement, or brief, in support of that view. These “friend of the court” briefs, called amicus curiae briefs, help the justices (& their clerks) all sides of the case to flesh out the various legal issues that are raised & how they may affect all interested parties.

66. What is the debate over deregulation on economic policy?
What are the most prominent recent examples of national programs in the area of education & income security?
In education, the 2002 No Child Left Behind Act set national standards for school & for students. Income security programs designed to relieve poverty generally take 2 forms: non-means based programs that provide cash assistance to any qualified beneficiary (such as the Social Security program), & means-tested programs that require that beneficiaries 1st meet certain standards before receiving benefits like food stamps.
What is the debate over deregulation on economic policy?
In the 1970s & 1980s, economic regulations came under fire as anti-competitive & anti-consumer. Many people saw regulating agencies as protecting the industries’ profit margins rather than the public good. The fervor over economic deregulation seems to be waning, though, as consumer protection is gaining popularity.

67. How does the Federal Reserve Board use the $ supply to manipulate monetary policy?
by altering the reserve requirement (the amount of deposits member banks are required to keep on hand & not loan out), changing the discount rate (the rate of interest that member banks have to pay to borrow $ from the Fed), & buying & selling securities in the open market.
What is the difference between discretionary & non-discretionary spending?
Discretionary spending refers to expenditures on programs & projects based on choices made by government planners. Non-discretionary spending refers to expenditures required by existing laws for current programs without debate or discussion. In recent years, the % of discretionary spending has decreased while the % of non-discretionary spending has increased.

68. What factors have contributed to the increase in size & power of the bureaucracy?
Part of the cause is the increase in population. More people & more demand from the government. The bureaucracy has also expanded in response to economic & political crises, such as the Great Depression & the Cold War. Another factor is the desire of presidents & members of Congress to provide more services to constituents.
How did the decisions in Bake v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims reinforce the concept of = representation & help to define the relationship between the legislative & judicial branches of government?
In Baker v. Carr (1962), the Supreme Court ruled that a voter could challenge the creation of congressional districts on the grounds that it violated the = protection clause of the 14th Amendment. In response, suits for reapportionment were brought least 34 states. In Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the Supreme Court ruled that population must be the primary consideration.

69. How do the legislative & executive branches check the judiciary?
The president controls the nature of the courts by appointing all federal judges. Congress may alter the structure of the court system, determining the # of courts & justices that serve on them. Congress also has the power to impeach justices. Congress may also amend the Constitution if the judiciary finds a law unconstitutional.
When was the only time in history that the presidency & the vice presidency were held by appointed, not elected, officials?
In 1973, V.P. Spiro Agnew resigned amidst charges of bribery. President Nixon appointed Ford in his place. The following year, Nixon resigned as a result of the Watergate scandal. Ford took the oath of office to become president, having never been elected. Ford then appointed Nelson Rockefeller his new V.P.

70. What are the composition & functions of the White House office?
What are the criteria a president uses when selecting nominees to the federal courts?
The most important criteria are political ideology, partisan & personal loyalties (over 90% of appointees are from the president’s party), acceptability to the Senate judicial experience, diversity, & the litmus test (the test of ideological purity on certain key issues).
What are the composition & functions of the White House office?
The White House office consists of personal assistants to the president. These aides oversee the political & policy interests of the president & do not require Senate confirmation. There are over 500 employees in the White House. The chief of staff & the press secretary are the most visible members of the White House staff.

71. Name the departments that make up the cabinet.
What is the composition of the Executive Office of the President & what is its role?
The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is an umbrella for 10 organizations that report directly to the president. Top positions are filled by presidential nomination w/ Senate confirmation. The 3 most important bodies are the Office of Management & Budget, the Council of Economic Advisors, & the National Security Council.
Name the departments that make up the cabinet.
The cabinet consists of the Department of State, Defense, Agriculture, Transportation, Interior, Justice, Treasury, Housing & Urban Development, Health & Human Services, Labor, Commerce, Education, Energy, Veterans Affairs, & Homeland Security.

72. How is the federal court system organized?
The lowest level of federal courts is district courts. There are 94 distributed across 50 states. Next in the hierarchy are the 12 courts of appeals, 1 for the District of Columbia & 11 regional groupings of states called circuits. the top is the Supreme Court, w/ 8 associate justices & 1 chief justice.
How does the legislative branch influence the formation of the federal budget?
After Congress receives & debates the budget package formulated by the Office of Management & Budget & the president, Congress modifies the president’s proposal. Congressional committees hold hearings, analyze the budget proposals, & by September offer budget resolutions that must be passed by September 15. Congress then sends the bills tot the president for approval.

73. What is the role of the Office of Faith-Based & Community Initiatives?
This agency was created by George W. Bush & added to the Executive Office of the President. The agency was created to allow local religious organizations to serve communities w/ food aid, housing aid, medical help, & educational services, & to apply for & receive federal funding to provide these services.
How do the federal courts make public policy w/ their decisions?
1st, a congressional statue or presidential action can be ruled unconstitutional. 2nd, national policy can be changed whenever the Supreme Court opts to decide an issue differently. 3rd, the Supreme Court can say that certain issues are political questions & therefore not proper subjects for judicial resolution.

74. What is the constitutional basis of separation of powers?
The constitutional basis for doctrine of separation of powers can be found in several principles, such as the separation of government into 3 branches, the conception that each branch performs unique & identifiable functions, & the limitation of personnel to a specific branch.
What are the provisions of the New Jersey Plan?
The plan proposed a unicameral legislature w/ 1 vote for each state, a weak executive elected by Congress, & a national judiciary appointed by the executive. The New Jersey Plan represented the interests of the smaller states.

75. What were the achievements under the Articles of Confederation?
What were the provisions of the Virginia Plan the Constitutional Convention?
The Virginia Plan was based on 3 principles. These included a strong national legislature w/ 2 chambers, 1 to be chosen by the people & 1 chosen by the lower house; a strong national executive to be chosen by the national legislature; & a national judiciary to be appointed by the legislature. This plan appealed primarily to the larger states, as it benefited their interests most.
What were the achievements under the Articles of Confederation?
The Treaty of Paris, signed w/ Great Britain in1783, formally recognized the independence of the U.S. The 2nd accomplishment was the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established the principle that the territories could enter the union as states on an = basis w/ the older states.

76. What is the strict scrutiny test?
What were the 4 principal parts of the Declaration of Independence, & to whom is it addressed?
It was addressed to King George III of Great Britain. The 1st part, is the preamble or introduction, the 2nd is the theory of republican government, the 3rd is the list of grievances (a collection of 27 complaints), & the 4th is the formal declaration of independence.
What is the strict scrutiny test?
The Supreme Court has developed a strict standard for laws & for detecting laws that display prejudice. The Court automatically classifies a law as suspect & demands that the government prove it has a compelling reason for the discrimination. The law in question must serve a compelling public interest in order for the Court to uphold it as valid & non-discriminatory.

77. What five rights are guaranteed by the 6th Amendment?
The 6th Amendment rights are trial rights, including the right to a speedy trial, the right to an attorney, the right to face the witness against you, the right to a trial by jury, & the right to know the charges against you.
What is the rational basis test?
The Supreme Court, in defining discrimination under the 14th Amendment, has recognized that some forms of discrimination may be valid. The rational basis test determines if the discrimination in question has a legitimate purpose, such as legislation that denies liquor to people under the age of 21.
What is the difference between substantive due process & procedural due process?
The 5th and the 14th Amendments guarantee due process, which is the idea that the government must act in a fair manner according to established rules. Substantive due process involves determining whether a law is fair or it violates constitutional protections. Procedural due process is the method of government action or how the law is carried out.

78. How was the protection against unreasonable search & seizure incorporated by the Supreme Court under the 14th Amendment?
In the 1949 case Wolf v. Colorado, the Supreme Court applied the protection against unreasonable search & seizure to the states under the due process clause of the 14th Amendment.
How have the rights of homosexuals been protected under the 14th Amendment?
In Rome v. Evans (1996) the Supreme Court ruled that a Colorado constitutional amendment invalidating state & local laws that protected homosexuals from discrimination was unconstitutional as it violated the = protection clause of the 14th Amendment. In Lawrence v. Texas (2003), the Supreme Court found that laws prohibiting homosexuals conduct also violate the clause.

79. When was the voting age lowered to 18?
What is the name of the judicial concept that has been used to apply the protections of the 14th Amendment to the states?
The debate over whether the 14th Amendment makes all of the protections of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states is 1 of the most important & longest-lasting debates involving interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. This debate is known as the incorporation doctrine, & is ongoing.
When was the voting age lowered to 18?
The 26 Amendment was passed in 1971, giving 18 year olds the right to vote in the 1972 election for the 1st time.
What 5 rights are guaranteed by the 5th Amendment?
The 5th Amendment states the rights of the accused, including the right to a grand jury, the right to be protected from double jeopardy, the right to eminent domain, the right not to incriminate oneself, & the right of due process of law.

80. What is the intergovernmental lobby?
State & local governments act as any other groups in the policymaking process when it comes to hiring lobbyists to try to advance their interests & gain access to federal policymakers. School districts, cities, states, police chiefs, & hospitals also hire lobbyists to represent & advance their interests.
What are the differences between categorical grants, block grants, & revenue sharing?
Categorical grants are for specific purposes & often require local matching funds. Block grants are devoted to general purposes w/ few restrictions. Revenue sharing requires no matching funds & allows much greater freedom in spending decisions.
How has Brown v. Board of Education affected the policy of racial integration of schools?
Brown had the effect of desegregating the public schools w/ “all deliberate speed.” However, the de facto segregation process was slow & tumultuous for many cities in both the North, such as Boston, & the South, such as Little Rock.

81. How did the doctrine of dual federalism develop?
How does Article VI of the Constitution establish the supremacy of the federal government?
Article 5 states that the Constitution & the laws of the U.S. are the supreme law of the land. The Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland (1918) that federal laws are supreme over state laws, & when a state law comes into conflict w/ a federal law, the federal law prevails. This has come to be called the supremacy clause.
How did the doctrine of dual federalism develop?
The Supreme Court decision in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) reaffirmed the concept of federal supremacy over interstate trade & state supremacy over intrastate trade. This created dual federalism. The national government has subsequently intruded into matters once reserved for the states, & dual federalism can hardly be said to exist any longer.

82. What was the effect of Planned Parenthood v. Casey?
least 3 Supreme Court cases regarding the death penalty & their consequences.
Furman v. Georgia (1972) invalidated all then existing death penalty laws based on the inherent arbitrariness of their application; in Gregg v. Georgia (1976) the Court upheld Georgia’s new capital-sentencing procedures; in Atkins v. Virginia (2002) & in Roper v. Simmons (2005) the Court ruled that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to the mentally retarded & to persons under the age of 18, respectively.
What was the effect of Planned Parenthood v. Casey?
Left courts to grapple w/ abortion regulations through application of a new test: does the regulation in question place an undue burden on a woman’s right to choose an abortion? Using this new test, courts have upheld some abortion regulations (such as waiting periods) while striking down others.

83. What was Proposition 209 in California?
Proposition 209 was an initiative placed on the ballot in California that would make affirmative action illegal. Groups involved in the fight for the passage included the governor & the California Civil Rights Initiative. The YWCA, the California American Association of University Women, & the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights argued against it. Proposition 209 was passed by referendum in California in 1996.
Do public school students enjoy the same protections as adults w/ regard to the 14th Amendment protection against unreasonable search & seizure?
No. The Supreme Court found in New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985) that the 14th Amendment does not apply to students in schools because they do not & should not have the rights afforded to adults in the criminal justice system. The school can conduct searches without a warrant in the interest of protecting students & maintaining order.

84. Are students in public schools granted the right of freedom of press?
What is the role of the police in protecting the rights of the accused, as guaranteed by the 5th and 6th Amendments to the Constitution?
In the 1966 case Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court decided that when police arrest a suspect they must inform the suspect of his or her constitutional rights to remain silent & to consult w/ an attorney. Through this decision, the Court hoped to alleviate what they perceived to be “the inherent pressures of the interrogation atmosphere.”
Are students in public schools granted the right of freedom of press?
No. The U.S. Supreme Court in Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeie (1988) upheld the right of public high school Hazelwood East High school in suburban St. Louis to censor stories from a school-sponsored student newspaper if the newspaper was produced on school grounds, using school equipment, & under the guidance of a school advisor.

85. What are Thomas Hobbes’ arguments in Leviathan?
Which of the rights guaranteed under the Bill of Rights have been incorporated by the 14th Amendments to apply to the states?
The 1st, 4th, 6th, & 8th Amendments have been fully incorporated. The 5th Amendment has been partially incorporated, & the 2nd & 7th Amendments have not been incorporated. No decision has been reached on the 3rd Amendment.
What are Thomas Hobbes’ arguments in Leviathan?
Hobbes believed that humans are basically selfish, individualistic, & war w/ each other. Therefore, people need an institution to govern them & to maintain order. Hobbes argued for a single ruler, even a strong monarch, to protect the rights of the weak against the wishes of the strong.

86. What are legislative vetoes? Are they constitutional?
How does the power of judicial review act as a check on the legislative & executive branches?
John Marshall expanded the Supreme Court’s power in the landmark 1803 Marbury v. Madison decision by writing that it was the duty of the Supreme court to “say what the law is” & declare laws passed by Congress, & acts of the executive, invalid if they are in contradiction w/ the Constitution.
What are legislative vetoes? Are they constitutional?
Legislative vetoes are a method by which Congress, in either 1 or both houses, blocks a proposed executive action. Vetoes are frequently used for presidential reorganization plans of the executive branch. These vetoes were declared unconstitutional in INS v. Chadha (1983), when the Supreme Court decided that they violated the doctrine of separation of powers.

87. How are the functions of the executive and legislative branches separate in regard to lawmaking?
The executive sets the legislative agenda through addresses to the people, dealings with the party leaders in Congress, and introducing new initiatives. Congress introduces new legislation, passes it through the committee systems and to the floors of both houses for votes, and then to the president’s desk. If vetoed, Congress may pass the bill into law with a two-thirds majority in both houses.
How are the functions of the legislative, executive, and the judicial branches separated and checked in the Constitution?
According to Article III of the Constitution, Congress has the power to establish lower courts. According to Article II, the Senate has the power to confirm presidential appointment of all federal and Supreme Court judges. Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the precedent of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to decide if state and federal laws are constitutional.

88. What is the Lame Duck Amendment?
This term refers to the Twentieth Amendment, which sets the end of the president and vice president’s term on January 20, and the end of senators’ and representatives’ terms on January 3. Officials who will not be assuming office in the new term and would therefore be ineffectual in proposing legislation are known as lame ducks.
What are examples of checks and balances between the legislative and executive branches?
The president appoints cabinet members, but the Senate has the authority to confirm appointments. The president sends troops into combat, but Congress declares war. The president can negotiate treaties, but only the Senate can ratify a treaty. The House of Reps can bring impeachment charges against the president, and the Senate holds impeachment trials and votes on removal.

89. What are three examples of concurrent powers?
How has the principle of separation of powers prevented presidents from successfully having their judicial nominees confirmed?
The Constitution grants the president the power to appoint federal judges and the Senate the power to confirm the nominations. The Senate uses filibuster to delay or prevent votes on judges. Since it takes sixty votes to bring an issue to a vote and end debate, the majority party needs sixty members out of one hundred to effectively confirm the president’s nominees.
What are three examples of concurrent powers?
Both federal and state governments make laws for their citizens. Both federal and state governments have the power to tax, to maintain courts, to define crimes, and to appropriate private property for public use. The states may also exercise any power that the Constitution does not reserve for the national government.

90. The largest percentage of federal budget money goes to pay for what programs?
The largest percentage of money from the federal government goes to pay for the cost of entitlement programs such as social security. More money goes to pay for these programs than for any other expenditure.
Of all of the articles, which Federalist Paper was the most famous and significant?
Federalist No In this article, James Madison explained how a republic would minimize the effect of divisive political factions by dividing power among several different parties. This action would negate the effect of a single faction operating alone.

91. How are federal programs implemented?
Federal programs are mainly carried out by the states. In most cases, the federal government provides the money and general guidelines, but the administration of the programs is left up to the states
What delayed the ratification of the Articles of Confederation
The Revolutionary War and disagreements between the 13 states were the main causes of delays. The disagreements between the states were over small issues, like boundary lines, but would also foreshadow the larger debates that the representatives at the constitutional conventions would argue, such as representation of small states and large states.

92. What are super-delegates?
Super-delegates are Democratic Party Leaders guaranteed a seat at the Democratic National Convention. In 1968 the McGovern-Fraser Commission supported affirmative action guidelines for choosing delegates. As a result, many party leaders were not chosen as delegates to attend the convention. So the Hunt Commission in 1981 set aside some delegate seats (about 15 – 20%) for party leaders to ensure that they would be able to attend.
What is substantive due process?
If a court decides that a law is unreasonable, it rules that the law violates substantive due process. Substantive rights are those general rights that individuals have to possess or to do certain things, despite the government’s desire to the contrary. These are rights like freedom of speech and religion.

93. What is procedural due process?
The due process clause of the 14th Amendment, adopted in 1868, states that before a convict can be executed, imprisoned, or fined for a crime, he or she must get a fair trial, based on legitimate evidence, with a jury. These are procedural or process rights,
What are the rules regarding religious clubs or organizations that meet in public schools?
The Supreme Court found in Good News Club v. Milford Central School (2001) that religious clubs are allowed to meet in public schools after class hours. Excluding the religious club was unconstitutional content-based discrimination, and permitting the meetings would not violate the establishment clause.

94. What is the difference between de jure and de facto segregation?
After the decision in Brown v. Board of Education the law regarding the segregation of schools clearly changed. De jure segregation, or legally binding segregation, was ruled unconstitutional. However, states continued to segregate schools through the use of drawing school district lines so as to produce single race school districts, creating de facto segregation.
What was Chief Justice Warren’s reasoning in Brown v. Board of Education?
Warren found that “in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ facilities are inherently unequal.” Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was overturned, and the age of segregated schools was slowly coming to a close.

95. How has affirmative action been interpreted by the Supreme Court?
In Bakke v. Regents (1978) the Court found that Alan Bakke had been denied equal protection by UC-Davis’s use of two-track admission system. In Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) the Univ. of Michigan Law School’s more individualized consideration of race was upheld. In Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) the Court struck down the Univ. Of Michigan’s more blatant weighting of race as a factor in admissions.
What are the two protections of freedom of religion guaranteed by the First Amendment?
The establishment clause protects individuals from the state establishment, sponsorship, or favoritism of an official national religion. In the free exercise clause, citizens are permitted to practice their individual religions in any way they choose, so long as these practices and rituals do not endanger society and do not break the laws of the community.

96. Is not saying the Pledge of Allegiance in school constitutionally protected freedom of speech?
Yes. In West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) the Court ruled the West Virginia Board’s policy requiring students and teachers to recite the Pledge of Allegiance to be unconstitutional. However, individual communities, and even individual schools, have set their own policies regarding this very controversial issue.
Do students have reasonable expectations as to the right to privacy with regards to drug testing in schools?
No. In Vernonia v. Acton (1995) the Supreme Court decided students must submit to random drug testing in order to participate in interscholastic athletics. The Court found that the policy is reasonable and constitutional. Students in a school environment “have a lesser expectation of privacy than members of the population generally.”

97. What is the right of expressive association?
In Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000) the Supreme Court ruled that forcing the Boys Scouts to admit a homosexual as a scout leader would violate the private organization’s right of freedom of association. This is the right of expressive association.
What does the Eighth Amendment prohibit?
The Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment for crimes.

98. What are gag orders, and are they legal?
Gag orders are restrictions placed on the press by judges trying to ensure a fair trial. The Supreme Court, ruling unanimously in Nebraska Press v., Stuart (1976), found that gag orders violate the First Amendment.,
What precedent was set by Gideon v. Wainwright?
The 1963 decision set the precedent that in capital cases, when a defendant is too poor to hire a lawyer, the state must provide an attorney for the defendant in order to assure a fair trial.

99. What is sexual harassment?
The Supreme Court has held that harassment can take two forms. First, it is illegal for someone to request sexual favors as a condition of employment or promotion. Second, an employer cannot permit a work environment that has been made hostile or intimidating by a steady pattern of offensive sexual teasing, jokes or obscenity.
How have the rights of disable persons been protected by law?
In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act was passed, which states that disabled persons may not be denied employment or promotion, equal access to government programs and transportation, or access to public accommodations.

100. How has the USA Patriot Act increased federal investigation powers?
With a court order, the government may tap every phone a suspect uses instead of having to get a separate order for each phone. The attorney general may hold any noncitizen who is thought to be a national security risk for up to seven days, and if not charged or detained, can continue to hold the suspect if he or she is deemed to be a security risk.
What are the key steps in the budget-making process?
First, House and Senate budget committees review the major provisions of the president’s budget proposals. These committees prepare a concurrent resolution that shows the total federal spending and tax plan for the coming fiscal year. Next, various House and Senate committees fit the spending and taxing plans with existing programs. The House then passes an appropriations bill, officially setting aside money for all expenditures approved.

101. What economic powers are reserved to the states?
State governments have historically retained the power to regulate business, labor, and the professions. They also establish laws dealing with property ownership, contracts, corporations, and torts. States closely regulate insurance and banking, set the rules governing public utilities, and encourage business development. States administer and control natural resources.
What is the state’s role in criminal laws and sentencing?
Because each state has its own criminal laws, dramatic differences exist among states when it comes to sentencing. Mandatory sentencing exists for some states for some classes of crimes, thus taking away judicial discretion. In most cases, however, judges have great latitude within a state.

102. How has dealing with deficits driven state policy agendas?
By Jan. 2002, growth in state Medicaid costs, a shortfall in revenue, and a sudden surge in funding for homeland security measures found most states dealing with budget deficits. Thirty-nine out of fifty states made budget cuts and thirty out of fifty states cut services to compensate for revenues below projections.,
How much federal revenue is derived from income taxes? Corporate income taxes?
The individual income tax is the federal government’s biggest source of revenue. About 45 cents of every dollar the government collects comes from this source. People also pay state income tax. Only 10 percent of federal revenue is derived from corporate income taxes.

103. How does Congress act to constrain the bureaucracy?
Mainly through laws. The Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 stipulates that before adopting new rules, hearings must be held. The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 gives citizens the right to inspect all government records. The Privacy Act of 1974 requires all government files about individuals to be kept confidential. The Open Meeting Law of 1976 ensures that all agency meetings are open to the public.
Which outside groups influence the nominations of federal judges?
Aside from conferring with senators and the attorney general, the president seeks advice from outside the government for judicial nominations. Most importantly, the American Bar Association provides a rating for potential nominees to federal judgeships. A variety of interest groups also attempt to influence the nomination process.

104. What is the excepted service?
The excepted service makes up almost half of all federal workers. They are not chosen by the Office of Personnel Management, and are largely chosen for non partisan reasons. Some are hired by agencies that have their own selection procedures, and some, about 3 percent, are legal exceptions selected by the president for policymaking and politically sensitive posts.
What is an agency point of view?
People who work in bureaucratic organization tend to identify with the goals and culture of their agency. The workers in these agencies tend to see the world through the lens of the agency, and often display fierce loyalty to it.

105. How does the Justice Department influence Supreme Court decision?
Can the president alter the size and shape of Congress or the Supreme Court?
No. Only the representatives can increase the size of Congress. To do so in the Senate would require the addition of a new state to the union, and to do so in the House would require changing the law passed in 1929 fixing the size of the House of Representatives at The size of the Court is also fixed by law.
How does the Justice Department influence Supreme Court decision?
Since the federal government is a party in about half of the cases the Supreme Court hears, the government’s top trial lawyer, known as the solicitor general, holds a powerful position, since he or she decides which cases the government will appeal from the lower courts.

106. What is the size and scope of the federal bureaucracy?
Several million civil servants work directly for the federal government, but over five times as many work indirectly as employees of business firms or nonprofit organizations that receive federal contracts, or as state and local governments working under federal mandates.
How is the president able to bypass Congress in policy and treaty making?
The president has the power to make executive orders, or rules that have the force of law that do not require congressional approval. The president also has the ability to make executive agreements with foreign nations to bypass the Senate’s role of offering advice and consent to treaties.

107. How has the executive branch consolidated power in the area of intelligence and foreign policy?
A new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Homeland Security, was created in 2002 to consolidate immigration policy, border control, and airport security. In 2004, Congress passed a law creating a new cabinet level position, the Director of Intelligence, to coordinate the fifteen intelligence agencies in the government.
What is the difference between authorization legislation and an appropriations bill?
An authorization bill sets up a program and specifies how much money may be appropriated for that program. It is the first step in appropriating money. The second step in the appropriations procedure comes when the agency actually asks Congress to provide the money it authorized. This is the appropriations bill.

108. What is the theory of democratic centralism?
Several leaders at the top of government solicit public opinion on a general policy question, consider the options, and then make a decision (in accordance with or against the wishes of the public) that is in the best interests of that public. In this way, the policy choice of this leadership in implemented, and the façade of democracy is preserved.
What is equity law?
Equity law is a system of rules by which disputes are resolved on the grounds of fairness. In equity cases, a plaintiff may ask the court to issue an injunction, a writ of mandamus, or some other action requiring a party to act fairly in a given situation

109. What is the constitutional basis of implied powers?
The necessary and proper clause of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, also known as the elastic clause, stretches Congress’s powers to make laws that help it carry out its enumerated powers.
What powers are denied to the government by the Constitution?
The powers denied to the federal government are contained in Article I, Section 9 of the Constitution. They include suspending the writ of habeas corpus, passing a bill of attainder or ex post facto law, levying taxes on exports, and granting titles of nobility.

110. How are vacancies in the Senate filled?
If a senator dies or resigns while in office, the governor of that senator’s home state has the power to appoint a replacement. This is usually a political process, resulting in an appointment from the political party of the governor, regardless of the political party of the senator who died or resigned.
What are full faith and credit and privileges and immunities clauses of Article IV of the Constitution?
Article IV of the Constitution requires that states must recognize each other’s laws and legal proceedings, or grant each other full faith and credit. The privileges and immunities clause refers to the fact that states may not discriminate against citizens of other states.

111. What are the differences between power, authority, and legitimacy?
Power is the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person’s intentions. Authority is the right to use power. People accept decisions made by people with the authority to make those decisions, which is the legitimate use of power, or legitimacy.
In his book The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli gave what famous advice to the prince of Florence, Italy?
In what has been called the theory behind the practice of modern American politics, Machiavelli advised the prince of Florence that “it is better to be feared than to be loved,” and that the appearance of being an honest, trustworthy ruler is more important than actually being an honest, trustworthy ruler.

112. What are the plans to reform the electoral college?
One plan us to choose electors from congressional districts. Each state would have two electoral votes plus one vote from each congressional district. Another plan is the direct popular vote. The third is a proportional plan, where if a candidate received 60 percent of a state , he or she would receive 60 percent of the electoral college votes from the state.
How does the electoral college system choose the president?
The electoral college includes 538 electors. Each state has as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress. To be elected president or vice president, a candidate must win at least 270 of the 538 votes. The party whose candidate receives the largest popular vote in a state wins all of that state’s electoral college votes.

113. What salary and benefits do the president and vice president receive?
Effective January , the annual salary of the president of the united states was $400,000 per year , including $50,000 expense allowance. The salary of the vice president is currently $202,900. Former presidents receive an annual pensions of $151,000 a year to maintain an office and staff.
What is the difference between executive agencies and independent or quasi-independent agencies?
Executive agencies include the Commission of Civil Rights, the Environmental Protection Agency, NASA, and all cabinet departments. The president can remove the leader of these agencies at any time. Independent or quasi-independent agency leaders serve for fixed terms and cannot be removed by the president. These agencies include the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Communications Commissions.

114. What are the benefits of being a member of Congress?
What is the difference between a marginal district and a safe district?
A marginal district is one in which a close election takes place, where the winner gets less than 55 percent of the vote. A safe district is one where the margin is at least 69 percent of the vote. The percentage of House districts that are considered safe is almost 90 percent. About 50 percent of Senate districts are considered safe.
What are the benefits of being a member of Congress?
Apart from the base salary, representatives receive an allowance to hire up to twenty-two staff members, travel allowances, a housing allowance, and the privilege to sent free mail, known as franking.

115. Where does most of the work take place in Congress?
Most legislative work is a accomplished in small committees that specialize in policy areas. There are subcommittees that take on even more specialized tasks to hold hearings on pending legislation, debate passage of proposed bills, and vote.
What are the most fundamental differences between members of Congress and members of European parliaments?
In the European parliaments, members are put on the ballot by the party. Once in parliament, members have only one important decision, which is whether or not to support the program of government. In Congress, members run in primary elections where in voters choose among candidates of the same party. Once in Congress, members can vote however they please.

116. What are inside stories?
Inside stories are those in which politicians reward friendly reporters by giving them exclusive information. Reporters cultivate their politician sources, as the politicians cultivate their media allies. Both sides have a great deal to gain.
What is a spin?
Spin is the attempt on the part of politicians or groups to recast media coverage of their activities in a more flattering light.

117. What is the adversarial press?
The adversarial press refers to the notion that the media is inherently suspicious, cynical, and distrustful of officials and of the information that comes directly from government in the form of press releases and news leaks. This has led to attack journalism, wherein reporters seize upon any little bit of information or rumor in order to present politicians in a negative light.
Which medium is more closely regulated, broadcast or print?
Newspapers and magazines are not really regulated by the federal government, but broadcasting is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. No one may operate a radio or television station without a license.

118. What was the significance of the New York Times v. U.S. decision?
The famous Pentagon Papers case established the principle of no prior restraint. The government sought a court order to prevent a newspaper from publishing papers containing secrets of national interest, citing the right of prior restraint, or the freedom to prevent people from breaking a law in the future. In a landmark decision, the Court held that the government cannot exercise, but can sue or prosecute afterward.
What is the phenomenon of narrowcasting & how has it affected campaigns?
In recent years there has been a proliferation of TV., radio, & internet sites that target highly segmented listening & viewing audiences. There is no longer the old-style print & broadcast media that reached heterogeneous populations. Narrowcasting refers to people viewing only a small slice of the opinion spectrum, given by highly opinionated commentators.

119. What are the material incentives of joining an interest group?
Material incentives include $ or services that groups offer only to their members. For example, members of the American Association of Retired Persons receive travel, hotel, & restaurant discounts, as well as low cost life insurance & free tax advice.
What are the solidary incentives to join interest groups?
Solidary incentives are the pleasures, sense of status, & companionship that arise out of meeting in small groups. Such rewards are extremely important, but they tend to be available only from face-to-face contact, so national interest groups must have local chapters to lure members & obtain funds from these new members.

120. What is the public perception of the effects of special interests on the democratic system?
A recent survey found that 72% of respondents think that special interests are the greatest threat to the nation’s future. 83% of people think that big special interest $ has too much influence on the political system, & 71% believe political lobbyists have too much power & influence in Washington.
What is the most important & the least important the disposal of an interest group?
1 recent survey found that the resource considered most important was a reputation for being credible & trustworthy. Members of Congress must feel comfortable w/ interest group lobbyists in order to talk to length about their issues. The resource considered least important was the size of an interest group’s budget.

121. What are the different types of interest groups?
Over 500 corporate firms have lobbyists, public-relations experts, & lawyers in Washington, most of them opening offices since Other institutions represented are universities, foundations, & governments. Individual interest groups are those that most Americans tend to be associated with, such as Sierra Club or the National Organization of Women.
What is a test case brought by an interest group?
A test is one of the most effective techniques interest groups use to alter public policy through judicial interpretation. A lawsuit will arise over an issue, & an interest group will offer to defend the person in court so that the law can be tested & thus reinterpreted according to the ideology of the interest group.

122. What is the revolving door?
This phrase refers to the phenomenon of people leaving important jobs in federal agencies to take more lucrative jobs in private industry, taking their knowledge of federal agency & its inner workings w/ them. Conversely, when people leave private industry , & work for the federal agency that regulates that industry, they bring the contacts w/ them as well.
Who can form a Political Action Committee?
Any kind of organization can form a Political Action Committee, including individual candidates for office. However, over half of PACs are sponsored by corporations, about one-tenth by labor unions, & the rest by various organizations, including religious groups. Conservative PACs outnumber liberal PACs two to one.

123. What is a social movement?
What is the outsider strategy used by interest groups to achieve their goals?
Radio, fax machines, & the internet allow for the immediate dissemination of news. The outsider strategy is the overnight mobilization of the segment of the population interested in a specific issue using these means of communication & is meant to bring about immediate political pressure. This pressure mostly originates from citizens outside of the political world.
What is a social movement?
A social movement is a widely shared demand for political change, often triggered by a scandal or the coming of age of a new generation that takes up a cause advocated by eloquent writers, teachers, or evangelists. Social movements include the feminist movement, the civil rights movement, & the union movement.

124. What are the historic eras in American political parties?
What are think tanks?
They are public interest organizations that research policy questions & disseminate their findings in books, articles, conferences, opinion essays for newspapers, & (occasionally) testimony before Congress. Some are non-partisan & ideologically neutral, & others, especially the most influential ones, are aligned w/ liberal or conservative causes.
What are the historic eras in American political parties?
There are 4 eras: The 1st party system that lasted until 1824; the 2nd party system, 1824 to 1865, that witnessed the democratization of elections & the origin of the true 2 party system; the 3rd, between the Civil War & the Great Depression, that saw Republicans & Democrats spend = time in the White House, and finally, the current modern party system.

125. What is Duverger’s Law?
Duverger’s Law states that a 2 party system is created when, in a single-member district, the candidate who reaches a plurality of votes 1st captures the single seat. In a proportional election system, where parties are allotted seats based on the percentage of votes that their party wins in the electorate, a multi-party system in generally the result.
What are the general differences between political parties in the U.S. and in Europe?
In the U.S., political parties are regulated by state & federal laws, weakening the parties overall. In Europe, the situation is usually reversed. The parties control the government. They make policy & act as the executive branch. The only way a candidate can be nominated is by party leaders.

126. What is a party caucus, held during the nomination phase of elections?
What is the difference between closed, open, & blanket primary elections?
In a closed primary, only voters registered in the political party may vote. In an open primary, all voters may vote, but voters may participate in only 1 primary. A blanket primary has candidates from all parties on 1 ballot, so voters may choose 1 party’s candidate for one office & another party’s candidate for another office.
What is a party caucus, held during the nomination phase of elections?
During the nominating phase of the election process a few states still hold caucuses. Most hold primary elections. Iowa is the 1st caucus in the nation. Party members in a precinct show a central location & literally stand in groups to show support (caucus) for various candidates that are running.

127. What is political patronage?
Political parties still dispense patronage, or favors given to reward party loyalty, to their members who work the hardest or who contribute the most. These favors include government or private sector jobs, contracts, & appointments to government positions.
What is a referendum?
A procedure where voters approve or disapprove a measure the state legislature has already passed. An optional referendum allows the legislature to voluntarily submit a bill to the voters for approval. A mandatory referendum requires certain kinds of bills, such as tax legislation, to be submitted to the voters before becoming law.

128. What is the % of each age group that votes in presidential elections?
In the past 2 presidential elections, only 17% of people between 18 & 29 voted, a disappointing percentage considering the concerted effort of both parties to raise youth participation. Approximately 25% of people between 30 & 40 voted, while 45% of those between 45 & 59 & 35% of those 65 & older.
How have political participation rates in the U.S. changed in recent times?
Americans are voting less but participating more. People are campaigning, contacting government officials, & working on community issues more than in prior decades. Public demonstrations have increased & people are more engaged in activities online.

129. What is the % of each age group that votes in presidential elections?
In the past 2 presidential elections, only 17% of people between 18 & 29 voted, a disappointing percentage considering the concerted effort of both parties to raise youth participation. Approximately 25% of people between 30 & 40 voted, while 45% of those between 45 & 59 & 35% of those 65 & older.
How have political participation rates in the U.S. changed in recent times?
Americans are voting less but participating more. People are campaigning, contacting government officials, & working on community issues more than in prior decades. Public demonstrations have increased & people are more engaged in activities online.

130. What differences exist among ethnic groups in terms of community participation?
According to Voice and Equity: Civic Volunteerism in American Politics, African Americans are more likely than Caucasians to get involved in community issues (23 percent versus 20 percent) and Hispanic Americans are more likely than either Caucasians or African Americans to serve on a community governing board (4.1%, 3.2%, and 2.3% respectively)
What is the difference between a political ideology and a political culture?
Political ideology refers to a consistent set of views concerning the political culture is a patterned set of ways of thinking about how government and politics ought to be carried out. People can disagree on political ideology and still share the same political culture.

131. What is the role of religion in American politics?
What is the difference between a conflictual and a consensual political culture?
A conflictual political cultures is one where groups with differing beliefs and values clash. A consensual political culture is where beliefs and values are widely shared. Even in a consensual political culture such as the US there are some issues that cause conflict.
What is the role of religion in American politics?
The US is among the most religious countries in the world. The average citizen is likely to believe in God, to pray on a daily basis, and to attend religious services. However, the boundary between church and state is part of the foundation that the government is built on.

132. What is the theory of social capital?
Political scientist Robert Putnam wrote in the mid 1990s that the existence of clubs, churches, and other organizations that promote civic trust translates to a degree of social capital that can be measured. The more clubs and associations a population belongs to, the higher their social capital is, and the stronger their sense of efficacy is.
What are some general traits of populists?
Populists are liberal on economic matters and conservative on social issues. They want a government that will reduce economic inequality and control business, but they also want it to regulate personal conduct, enforce criminal legislation, and permit school prayer. Populists tend to be older, poorly educated, low income, religious, and female and tend to live in the South or the Midwest.

133. What are some general traits of libertarians?
Libertarians are conservative on economic matters and liberal on social issues. They want a small, weak government that has little control over the economy or the personal lives of citizens. Libertarians, with some notable exceptions, tend to be young, college-educated, white, with high incomes, and olive in the West.
What is the political socialization phenomenon of the benevolent leader?
Children learn that the political figures of the US are well-meaning, honest, and trustworthy early in their childhood through the political socialization process, including children’s stories of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. These stories instill the idea of a benevolent leader.

134. How do elites influence public opinion?
Elite views shape mass views by influencing both what issues capture the public attention and how those issues are debated and decided. Furthermore, elites state the norms by which issues should be settled. They set the range of acceptable and unacceptable policy options.
Wo is John Q. Public?
John Q. Public is the average man or woman on the street, often portrayed by cartoonists as bespectacled or befuddled. Pollsters and the mass media speak of John Q. Public when they want to make a blanket statement about general public opinion in the US

135. What are straw polls, and are they reliable?
What is the new class?
Sociologists and political scientists often claim that there is a new class of people who benefit from the power, resources, and growth of government. They constitute a new elite that are wealthy and powerful because of their connections with government, not business, as elites previously were.
What are straw polls, and are they reliable?
Straw polls are unscientific attempts to measure public opinion, often used by newspapers, TV stations, internet sites, and even members of Congress. The results of straw polls are not reliable because there is no guarantee that the group or sample answering the question is representative of the population as a whole.

136. How do pollsters draw a representative sample?
One method is cluster sampling, where groups are drawn by geographical divisions, such as counties or congressional districts. Another method is random digit dialing, where people over 18u with birthdays in a certain month are asked to complete a questionnaire.
How was suffrage extended to women?
Women were kept from the polls by law more than by intimidations. By 1915 several states, mostly in the West, had begun to permit women to vote. In 1920 the 19th Amendment was ratified, ensuring all women the right to vote and doubling the size of the electorate.

137. Summarize the legal struggle for African American voting rights.
How did the Australian ballot change the way elections were held in the US?
Australia introduced a new ballot around 1890 in an attempt to minimize the fraud in elections. To reduce instances of vote buying and fraudulent vote counts that occurred when the parties printed ballots themselves and citizens voted in public, the government produced a ballot for all parties that was required to be cast in private.
Summarize the legal struggle for African American voting rights.
The 15th Amendment stipulates that “the rights of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by any state on account of race.” However, states employed literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses to prevent blacks from voting. It was not until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that African American voting rights were enforced.

138. How did literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses effectively prevent newly freed slaves from voting?
A literacy test was a very difficult test of civic knowledge given to blacks before they were permitted to vote. Alabama’s test was 65 questions in 45 minutes. Poll taxes were a fee required to vote, which few blacks could afford to pay. A grandfather clause allowed a person to vote if he or his ancestors voted prior to 1867.